United States

Stainless steels are established in various fields with challenging environments, e.g. offshore, petrochemical, and automotive industries. The combination of high-performance properties and high-value added applications makes stainless steels attractive for Additive Manufacturing (AM). In powder-based AM processes such as Laser Directed Energy Deposition (DED-LB/M) typically pre-alloyed powders are used for part fabrication. By an innovative approach called in-situ alloying, the chemical composition of pre-alloyed powder can be adjusted by mixing it with an additional powder material. This allows the material properties to be flexibly and efficiently tailored for specific applications. In this work, a standard duplex stainless steel (DSS) is modified for the first time with elemental powders in order to systematically adjust the resulting phase formation, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. For this, powder mixtures were generated consisting of pre-alloyed DSS 1.4462 and additions of pure chromium (+1.0 to +7.0 wt.-%) or nickel (+1.0 to +5.0 wt.-%) powder. Processing by means of DED-LB/M resulted in specimens (relative density &amp;gt; 99.7 %) with ferrite-austenite phase ratios ranging from almost 10:90 % to 90:10 %. Increasing the Cr-content successively increased the ferrite percentage, resulting in higher material hardness, higher strength and resistance against pitting corrosion, but poor ductility and toughness compared to the unmodified DSS. In contrast, an increased Ni-content resulted in an increased austenite formation with lower hardness and strength, but increased ductility and toughness. This strategy was shown to add flexibility to powder-based AM processes by enabling an on-demand material design for stainless steels.

ICALEO 2023

In-Situ Process Monitoring of Directed Energy Deposition Powder Flow to Detect Anomalies

powder flow rate

in-process monitoring

directed energy deposition

anomaly detection

Stainless steels are established in various fields with challenging environments, e.g. offshore, petrochemical, and automotive industries. The combination of high-performance properties and high-value added applications makes stainless steels attractive for Additive Manufacturing (AM). In powder-based AM processes such as Laser Directed Energy Deposition (DED-LB/M) typically pre-alloyed powders are used for part fabrication. By an innovative approach called in-situ alloying, the chemical composition of pre-alloyed powder can be adjusted by mixing it with an additional powder material. This allows the material properties to be flexibly and efficiently tailored for specific applications. In this work, a standard duplex stainless steel (DSS) is modified for the first time with elemental powders in order to systematically adjust the resulting phase formation, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. For this, powder mixtures were generated consisting of pre-alloyed DSS 1.4462 and additions of pure chromium (+1.0 to +7.0 wt.-%) or nickel (+1.0 to +5.0 wt.-%) powder. Processing by means of DED-LB/M resulted in specimens (relative density &gt; 99.7 %) with ferrite-austenite phase ratios ranging from almost 10:90 % to 90:10 %. Increasing the Cr-content successively increased the ferrite percentage, resulting in higher material hardness, higher strength and resistance against pitting corrosion, but poor ductility and toughness compared to the unmodified DSS. In contrast, an increased Ni-content resulted in an increased austenite formation with lower hardness and strength, but increased ductility and toughness. This strategy was shown to add flexibility to powder-based AM processes by enabling an on-demand material design for stainless steels.

technical paper

**General Chair Welcome**

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Welcome to ICALEO® 2023!
	
We were excited to host the world’s leading international conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics in Chicago. The Laser has been shown to have the potential to revolutionize solutions for major global challenges like energy usage and supply, global warming, and CO2 footprint. Even the fusion energy breakthrough is based on laser technology. The conference, with peer-reviewed scientific and technical presentations, focused on the newest results in Micro Applications, Macro Applications, Additive Manufacturing, Beam Shaping and Frontiers in Laser Applications. Additionally, the Battery-Manufacturing Track gave an overview of the process combined with the newest advances in laser application results. 

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Whether this is the first time you are hearing about ICALEO or you are a longtime attendee, you will find something of interest, new ideas, and an excellent opportunity to network with other laser specialists worldwide. 

**Klaus Löffler **  
ICALEO General Chair   
Managing Director, Precitec GmbH

**What is ICALEO?**

ICALEO® brings together the brightest minds, seasoned professionals, and pioneering researchers from around the world. With a laser-focused agenda, ICALEO offers an exceptional platform to delve into the cutting-edge advancements, diverse applications, and transformative research that define lasers and electro-optics.

Participants will be immersed in a dynamic environment that fosters collaborative learning, networking, and idea exchange. Through engaging plenary presentations, technical sessions, an industry business panel, and networking events, attendees gain insights into the forefront of laser technology. From industrial applications to medical breakthroughs, additive manufacturing to materials processing, ICALEO covers the entire spectrum of laser-related disciplines. Moreover, the event serves as a launching pad for synergistic partnerships, paving the way for professionals to forge connections that shape the future of our industry.

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ICALEO® brings together the brightest minds, seasoned professionals, and pioneering researchers from around the world. With a laser-focused agenda, ICALEO offers an exceptional platform to delve into the cutting-edge advancements, diverse applications, and transformative research that define lasers and electro-optics.

Parts with complex geometry, elevated mechanical and corrosion resistance can be obtained by martensitic stainless steels (MSS) using additive manufacturing by laser directed energy deposition (AM L-DED) process. In this work, a proposed method was employed for choosing L-DED parameters based on design of experiments (DoE): Single beads, to define windows of powder feed rate, laser power, and travel speed; Single layers, to find the ideal hatch spacing for lateral bead overlapping; and Multilayer, to determine the ideal layer height for layer overlapping. Using the optimized parameters, AM L-DED samples were produced of AISI 410L MSS feedstock on AISI 410 MSS substrate. Microstructure, hardness, tensile strength, and impact toughness were evaluated in the as built and heat-treated conditions and compared to the AISI 410 substrate. Four heat-treatment routes were investigated: annealed (1050 °C for 90 min and water quenched), and annealed, water quenched and tempered at 300 °C, 450 °C, and 600 °C for 90 min, then air cooling. From results, as built samples showed the highest hardness, yield and ultimate tensile strength, but the lowest toughness. Ductility was progressively recovered with tempering temperature increase. Best compromise was seen in samples tempered at 600 °C that showed toughness improvement, keeping a tensile performance higher than AISI 410 substrate.

Influence of Post-processing Heat-Treatment on the Mechanical Performance of Aisi 410L Stainless Steel Manufactured by L-Ded Process

Batteries and other energy storage and energy transformation devices require a dedicated functionalisation of the subcomponents. From surface structuring to cutting and assembly of the different components, every single processing step should not influence the basic properties of the material and should even more increase the the characterics of the entire device. Ultrashort pulsed lasers provide technologies to optimize the electrical properties of the electrodes in batteries but also allow the modification of components in redox flow batteries and also in fuel cells. With micro and nano scaled structured electrodes based on ultra short ablation and modification the efficiency of batteries and electrolysers can be increased significantly. Especially in new types of batteries, like solid state batteries, short wavelengths in the UV provide the necessary power and physical properties to allow thin film modification an large scales. With ultra short pulsed lasers in the UV nano scaled modification of electrodes can be realized without influencing the electical properties of the electrodes without loosing active surface areas. With high power ultra short pulsed lasers and adapted beam guiding technologies large area surfaces can be processed. The presentation will show different approaches for the use of high power ultra short and UV lasers for the manufacturing of battery components.

Ultrashort Pulsed Lasers and New Laser Wavelengths for Improved Battery Manufacturing

Laser welding is a key enabling technology the transition towards electric mobility, enabling joints with elevated electrical and mechanical properties. In the production of battery packs, cell to busbar connections are challenging due to the strict tolerances and zero-fault policy. Hence, it is of great interest to investigate how beam shaping techniques may be exploited to enhance the electro-mechanical properties as well as improve material processability. Industrial laser systems often provide the possibility to oscillate dynamically the beam or redistribute the power in multi-core fibers. Although contemporary equipment enables elevated flexibility in terms of power redistribution, further studies are required to indicate the most adequate solution for the production of high performance batteries. 
Within the present investigation, both in-source beam shaping and beam oscillation have been exploited to perform 0.2-0.2 mm Ni-plated steel welds in lap joint configuration, representative of typical cell to busbar connections. An experimental campaign allowed to define process feasibility conditions where partial penetration welds could be achieved by means of in-source beam shaping. Hence, dynamic beam oscillation was explored to perform the connections. In the subset of feasible conditions, the mechanical strength was determined via tensile tests alongside electrical resistance measurements. In-situ high speed videography allowed to disclose the process dynamics. Linear welds with a Gaussian beam profile enabled joints with the highest productivity at constant electro-mechanical properties. Spatter formation due to keyhole instabilities could be avoided by redistributing the emission power via multi-core fibers whilst dynamic oscillation did not provide significant benefits.

Effect of In-Source Beam Shaping and Laser Beam Oscillation on the Electro-Mechanical Properties of Ni-Plated Steel Joints for E-Vehicle Battery Manufacturing

We discuss laser micromachining as a means of fabricating dielectric-based electrospray thrusters that use ionic liquid propellants for nanosatellite propulsion applications. Because of their small size, nanosats typically lack means of propulsion, which limits their lifetimes and mission scopes and is problematic for deorbit at end of life. Electrospray thrusters, however, can be very compact, using electric potentials to accelerate and eject ionic matter, thereby achieving high specific impulse. Traditional fabrication methods involve numerous steps, including lithography and/or chemical etching, resulting in microscale emitter structures that protrude from a substrate and can easily be damaged during assembly and/or launch. This format also requires a separate, detached grid electrode that serves as an extraction grid needed to induce ionic emission of propellant from the emitters. Our fabrication approach uses Bessel-beam laser micromachining to form embedded, micron-diameter capillaries up to several hundred microns long through a transparent glass substrate, without chemical etching. One surface of the glass is coated with a transparent conductive layer that serves as an integrated extraction electrode and which needs no alignment. Further laser machining with Gaussian-beam, water-assisted cavitation is used to excavate cylindrical electrospray cavities in this surface around each capillary, to catch errant propellant and prevent shorting while optimizing the capillary emitter-extractor separation distance. The resulting array of capillary emitters and cavities with integrated extractor comprises an electrospray emitter chip that forms the core of an electrospray thruster, and provides the potential to achieve significantly lower onset voltages than traditional electrospray thruster designs.

Laser Microfabrication for Ionic Propulsion Systems

Liquid immersion is used in laser machining to cool and remove debris from samples.&nbsp; The use of fluid media such as water, oils, or air for machining is well researched; however, the application of low-vapor-pressure fluids, such as ionic liquids, for laser micromachining has not been researched in depth.&nbsp; Ionic liquids are electrically neutral salts that are liquid at room temperature.&nbsp; These liquids tend to have low vapor pressure, which impacts a fluid’s ability to vaporize and cavitate during laser machining.&nbsp; Fluids with high vapor pressures, on the other hand, can be considered volatile and easily vaporize with minimal added energy.&nbsp; This paper discusses the effects of various immersion fluids on laser micromachining.&nbsp; &nbsp;Different immersion media were tested on a borosilicate glass cover slip using ultrafast (300 fs) laser pulses focused by a high numerical aperture (NA 1.2) immersion lens.&nbsp; For each immersion fluid, rectangular arrays of holes were machined with single, well-separated pulses, where the cover slip was translated laterally and stepped axially to change the focal position and bracketing the glass surface with positions both above (in the fluid) and below it (in the glass).&nbsp; The machined samples were then replicated with polymer imprint lithography, and both the substrate and replica were imaged using optical and scanning electron microscopies.&nbsp; The results suggest that fluids with lower vapor pressures, like ionic liquids, can expand the usable machining focal range, while also reducing the diameter of the holes and perhaps even mitigating collateral surface damage.

Fluid-Immersion Laser Micromachining Using Ionic Liquids

In this study, laser doping of n-type 4H-SiC with boron for mid-wave infrared (MWIR) optical properties is reported. A novel doping technique based on a pulsed Nd:YAG laser (1064 nm) for doping silicon carbide (SiC) was developed. An aqueous boric acid (H 3 BO 3 ) solution was utilized as a precursor to facilitate p-type doping in 4H-SiC. FTIR spectrometry was used to characterize the optical properties of the as-received and boron-doped samples within the MWIR range. The boron dopant created an acceptor energy level at (E v + 0.29 eV) within the bandgap of 4H-SiC, corresponding to 4.3 µm wavelength. Upon absorption of photons of this wavelength by the boron-doped 4H-SiC, the electron densities in valence and acceptor energy levels were altered, resulting in a change in the refraction index of the 4H-SiC substrate. A theoretical heat transfer model was devised to establish a correlation between laser processing parameters and various other factors that impact the effectiveness of the laser doping process. These factors include the laser-substrate interaction time, minimum dopant diffusion time, dopant concentration in precursor solution and dopant concentration diffused into the substrate. To ensure a thorough analysis, a comprehensive investigation was carried out on the as-received and boron-doped samples, encompassing a careful examination of their optical properties for the MWIR wavelength range. The laser doping process resulted in a notable decrease in the refraction index from 2.873 to 2.517. Our experimental results aligned with the theoretical model developed for selecting the laser processing parameters, affirming its success.

Laser Doping of N-Type 4H-SiC With Boron Using Solution Precursor for MWIR Optical Properties

As emerging of IoT devices, the ICs should be fast. To fulfill the fast performance, 3D ICs has been adopted. A 3D IC has relatively shorter connection electrode than conventional 2D ICs. And it is achieved by interposer. A interposer has via holes which are filled with conducting materials. In previous studies, various researchers have been suggested glass interposer, so called through glass via (TGV). Since glass has low electric permittivity, thus it is suitable for interposer. Also, glass can match its thermal expansion coefficient with silicon and it can suppress a warpage of wafer. Therefore, we have been studying of TGV for last few years. There are many methods which can generate via holes in the glass. Among them, recently, selective laser etching is emerging as a good candidate for mass production. It consists with two steps for generating TGV. Which is laser local modification and chemical etching. With previous study, we could enhance a process speed with Bessel beam shaping and picosecond interval pulses. In this study, we are focused on chemical etching process. In order to enhance the etching rate, 4 different etchants are tested. Which is HF, KOH, NaOH, and NH4F. Each etchant has its own optimal etching conditions, such as temperature and molar concentration. Here, we compare their etching results. The main criteria of comparison is selectivity. In our study, NH4F shows the best selectivity. Thus, we claim that NH4F can be a good candidate etchant for mass production of Glass interposer.

Study of Selective Laser Etching Process With Various Etchants

The amount of absorbed energy in the keyhole and its spatial and temporal distribution is essential to model the laser beam welding process. The recoil pressure, which develops as a consequence of the evaporation process induced by the absorbed laser energy at the keyhole wall, is a key determining factor for the macroscopic flow of the molten metal in the weld pool during high-power laser beam welding. Consequently, a realistic implementation of the effect of the laser radiation on the weld metal is crucial to obtain reliable and accurate simulation results. 
In this paper, we discuss manyfold different improvements on the laser-material interaction, namely the ray-tracing method, in the numerical simulation of the laser beam welding process. The first improvement relates to locating the exact reflection points in the ray tracing method using a so-called cosine-condition in the determination algorithm for the intersection of the reflected rays and the keyhole surface. A second correction refers to the numerical treatment of the Gaussian distribution of the laser beam, whose beam width is defined by a decay of the laser intensity by a factor of 1/e2 thus ignoring around 14 % of the total laser beam energy. In a third step, the changes in the laser radiation distribution in vertical direction were adapted by using different approximations for converging and diverging regions of the laser beam thus mimicing the beam caustics. Finally, a virtual mesh refinement was adopted in the ray tracing routine. The obtained numerical results were validated with experimental measurements.

Challenges in Dynamic Heat Source Modeling in High-Power Laser Beam Welding

Through experimental observation and auxiliary numerical simulation, this investigation studies the different types of grain refinement of 5754 aluminum alloy laser beam welding by applying a transverse oscillating magnetic field. Scanning electron microscope results have proved that the application of a magnetic field can reduce the average crystal branch width and increase its number. The interaction between the induced eddy current generated by the Seebeck effect and the applied external magnetic field produces a Lorentz force, which is important for the increase in the number of crystal branches. Based on the theory of dendrite fragmentation and the magnetic field-induced branches increment, the grain size reduction caused by the magnetic field is studied. Furthermore, the effects of the magnetic field are analyzed by combining a phase field method model and simulations of nucleation and grain growth. The grain distribution and average grain size after welding verify the reliability of the model. In addition, the introduction of a magnetic field can increase the number of periodic three-dimensional solidification patterns. In the intersection of two periods of solidification patterns, the metal can be re-melted and then re-solidified, which prevents the grains, that have been solidified and formed previously, from further growth and generates some small cellular grains in the new fusion line. The magnetic field increases the building frequency of these solidification structures and thus promotes this kind of grain refinement.

Experimental and Numerical Study on Grain Refinement in Electromagnetic Assisted Laser Beam Welding of 5754 Al Alloy

Laser welding in transmission manufacturing opens up completely new kinds of product solutions with excellent properties in terms of wear, corrosion resistance and service life. Current welding designs are characterized in particular by difficult-to-weld material combinations (e.g., steel vs. cast iron) and a high component stiffness for load transfer, that is typically correlated with high residual welding stresses. The major challenge for these welded structural components remains both their crack-free weldability and their complex cyclic load capacity. 
In this frame, the subject of this contribution is the presentation of a simulation-based strategy for process- and load-compatible laser welded transmission components. Specifically, a systematic study is being conducted to understand and qualitatively evaluate effective methods for reducing residual weld stresses in circumferential welds. The recommendations developed as part of this study take particular account of the influence of process modifications, material conditions and geometric aspects on weldability and component distortion. In this context, the residual stresses can be reduced by up to 30 % using suitable modifications. In particular, structural welding simulations are performed and verified by experimental welding trials including metallographic examinations. To ensure the required component fatigue strength, a practical concept for determining Wöhler curves is presented. 
The simulation-based development methods enable the production of&nbsp;load-transmitting components in the fields of e-mobility, aerospace and industrial engineering.&nbsp;In particular, time-consuming and cost-intensive iterations of laser welding tests can be significantly reduced. Furthermore, the systematic investigations provide effective recommendations for phenomenological understanding and solving typical welding challenges in practice.

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In-Situ Process Monitoring of Directed Energy Deposition Powder Flow to Detect Anomalies

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Influence of Post-processing Heat-Treatment on the Mechanical Performance of Aisi 410L Stainless Steel Manufactured by L-Ded Process