United States

Two-dimensional (2D) van der Waals transparent conducting metal oxides (TCOs) have recently emerged as a promising platform for fabricating flexible optoelectronic devices, offering high mobility, high transparency, and improved mechanical flexibility. This class of 2D oxides can be synthesized at low temperatures (&lt; 180 °C) without vacuum by utilizing the unique physics of liquid metal surface oxides. Here we report continuous liquid metal printing for scalable fabrication of high-performance 2D TCOs compatible with polymer substrates. We apply a spontaneous Cabrera Mott growth at low-temperatures afforded by the low melting point of In, Ga, Sn, and their alloys. In our continuous liquid metal printing (CLMP) method, these metal droplets serve as the source material for simultaneously growing and depositing these films via adhesion of the 2-3 nm thick solid oxide skin over large areas (~ 100 cm2). The high speed of this roller-based deposition method (&gt; 6 meters/minute) is also particularly promising because Cabrera Mott synthesis naturally yields high conductivity, sub-stoichiometric oxides via their oxidation from the metallic phase. This allows the use of a rapid process, eliminating thermal post-annealing steps otherwise necessary for low-temperature metal oxides, opening up greater opportunities for utilizing lower cost plastic substrates. In this presentation, we demonstrate a new class of layered TCO heterostructures exploiting modulation doping interactions between 2D InOx and 2D GaOx. We characterize the crystallinity of these 2D oxide films as a function of deposition temperature within the range of plastic substrates (160 °C to 240 °C) by XRD and apply TEM to observe the large plate-like cubic InOx grain structure. These overlapped grain morphologies lead to high conductivity (up to 600 S/cm) despite the exceptionally low total processing time (3s per layer) and low temperatures (180 °C). Through XPS, UV-Vis, and Hall characterization, we examine the modulation doping effect induced by the InOx / GaOx interface in these multilayer TCOs. UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy reveals the impact that modulation doping can enhance visible range transparency through a Burstein Moss effect-induced optical bandgap widening. We characterize the flexibility of these 2D TCOs in comparison with sputtered ITO electrodes on plastic substrates, showing how the ultrathin nature provides substantially greater strain tolerance under cyclic bending. These results show how interfacial modulation doping interactions can be used to control and enhance the electronic properties of 2D oxides beyond the state of the art for low-temperature processed metal oxides.

EMC 2023

Continuous Liquid Metal Printing of High-Performance 2D Oxide Heterostructures

transparent semiconducting oxides

2d oxides

heterostructures

[![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/985c8a40b04e56675221c8549975de3c.png)](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1B70nPIeeeqdG4UU70NlYXuKVOHLRuJEo/view?usp=sharing)

### ** History of DRC**
The Device Research Conference (DRC) began in the pre-transistor era with the 1942 establishment of the Conference on Electron Device Research (CEDR). Following William Shockley’s 1948 CEDR presentation of the transistor device, the Solid-State Device Research Conference (SSDRC) was established, with invitation-only attendance.

In the ensuing decades, many exciting firsts were presented at SSDRC, including the use of impurity diffusion in silicon and germanium, the first practical MOSFET, and the first lattice-matched heterojunction.

In 1969, under the leadership or Herbert Kroemer and Cal Quate, the CEDR and SSDRC merged into DRC. In 1970, attendance was opened to all, and the first DRAM (dynamic random-access memory), room temperature lasers, and first CCD (charge-coupled device) were reported—all in the same 1970 DRC meeting!

1976 saw the first official coordination of tandem meetings between DRC and the Electronic Materials Conference (EMC) to bring together the electronic materials and device communities—a custom which persists to this day. In 1991, DRC began publishing its digest with IEEE; they can all be found [here on IEEE Xplore](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/conhome/1000199/all-proceedings). Throughout this period, DRC featured reports of many novel and record-setting devices, including the HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor), VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser), HBT (Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor), and nanoscale MOSFETs.

In recent years, DRC has continued to be the world’s premier forum to present innovative semiconductor device research with work on organic thin film transistors, graphene and carbon nanotube transistors, and 2D materials all featuring prominently in the 1990s through to the present day. In 2017, we celebrated DRC’s 75th anniversary with special sessions and an [article in the Journal of the Electron Device Society](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=8168249&isnumber=8232486). DRC technical topics continue to evolve with emerging device trends such as memory devices, quantum devices, optoelectronics/photonics, and wide bandgap power devices to reflect the exciting work being done by a diverse community of device engineers around the globe.

Today, as we look forward to the next 75+ years of device innovation, DRC continues to lead the way in showcasing top-caliber research, facilitating vibrant discussion and debate and acting as a platform to nurture the next generation of device engineers. We welcome you to join us at the next DRC!

To learn more about DRC's history, please see [Aaron Franklin, Debdeep Jena and Deji Akinwande, "75 Years of the Device Research Conference—A History Worth Repeating," in IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society, vol. 6, pp. 116-120, 2018. doi: 10.1109/JEDS.2017.2780778](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=8168249&isnumber=8232486).

### **Topics**
* Biological Devices
* Devices for Extreme Conditions
* Heterogeneously Integrated Devices
* Memory Devices
* Modeling and Simulation of Devices
* Nanoscale and Vacuum Devices
* Optoelectronic and Optical Devices
* Other Emerging Devices
* Power Devices
* Quantum Devices
* RF and Terahertz Devices
* Spintronic and Magnetic Devices
* Thin-film Devices
* Wide-bandgap Devices
 
### **Invited Speakers**
* Patrick Fay, University of Notre Dame
* Susanne Hoffmann-Eifert, Peter Grünberg Institute
* Sanghyeon Kim, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
* Sriram Krishnamoorthy, University of California, Santa Barbara
* Mario Lanza, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology
* Xiuling Li, The University of Texas at Austin
* Marko Radosavljevic, Intel Corporation
* Siddharth Rajan, The Ohio State University
* Giordano Scappucci, Delft University of Technology
* Fisher Yu, University of Arkansas
* Wenjuan Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign




Registration is required to attend this event. If you have not already done so, please use the link below to register for a ticket to the conference:

https://www.mrs.org/drc-2022/registration

Registration Is Required

DRC 2022

DRC continues to be the world’s premier forum to present innovative semiconductor device research with work on organic thin film transistors, graphene and carbon nanotube transistors, and 2D materials all featuring prominently in the 1990s through to the present day. In 2017, we celebrated DRC’s 75th anniversary with special sessions and an article in the Journal of the Electron Device Society. 
DRC technical topics continue to evolve with emerging device trends such as memory devices, quantum devices, optoelectronics/photonics, and wide bandgap power devices to reflect the exciting work being done by a diverse community of device engineers around the globe.

Two-dimensional (2D) van der Waals transparent conducting metal oxides (TCOs) have recently emerged as a promising platform for fabricating flexible optoelectronic devices, offering high mobility, high transparency, and improved mechanical flexibility. This class of 2D oxides can be synthesized at low temperatures (< 180 °C) without vacuum by utilizing the unique physics of liquid metal surface oxides. Here we report continuous liquid metal printing for scalable fabrication of high-performance 2D TCOs compatible with polymer substrates. We apply a spontaneous Cabrera Mott growth at low-temperatures afforded by the low melting point of In, Ga, Sn, and their alloys. In our continuous liquid metal printing (CLMP) method, these metal droplets serve as the source material for simultaneously growing and depositing these films via adhesion of the 2-3 nm thick solid oxide skin over large areas (~ 100 cm2). The high speed of this roller-based deposition method (> 6 meters/minute) is also particularly promising because Cabrera Mott synthesis naturally yields high conductivity, sub-stoichiometric oxides via their oxidation from the metallic phase. This allows the use of a rapid process, eliminating thermal post-annealing steps otherwise necessary for low-temperature metal oxides, opening up greater opportunities for utilizing lower cost plastic substrates. In this presentation, we demonstrate a new class of layered TCO heterostructures exploiting modulation doping interactions between 2D InOx and 2D GaOx. We characterize the crystallinity of these 2D oxide films as a function of deposition temperature within the range of plastic substrates (160 °C to 240 °C) by XRD and apply TEM to observe the large plate-like cubic InOx grain structure. These overlapped grain morphologies lead to high conductivity (up to 600 S/cm) despite the exceptionally low total processing time (3s per layer) and low temperatures (180 °C). Through XPS, UV-Vis, and Hall characterization, we examine the modulation doping effect induced by the InOx / GaOx interface in these multilayer TCOs. UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy reveals the impact that modulation doping can enhance visible range transparency through a Burstein Moss effect-induced optical bandgap widening. We characterize the flexibility of these 2D TCOs in comparison with sputtered ITO electrodes on plastic substrates, showing how the ultrathin nature provides substantially greater strain tolerance under cyclic bending. These results show how interfacial modulation doping interactions can be used to control and enhance the electronic properties of 2D oxides beyond the state of the art for low-temperature processed metal oxides.

technical paper

The Electronic Materials Conference (EMC) is the premier annual forum on the preparation, characterization and use of electronic materials. This year’s event will feature a plenary session, topical sessions, a poster session and more.

EMC is coordinated with the Device Research Conference (DRC). This recognizes the strong interaction between device and electronic materials research and provides fruitful exchange of information between attendees of both Conferences.

The Electronic Materials Conference (EMC) is the premier annual forum on the preparation, characterization and use of electronic materials. 

In this study, we demonstrate the utility of impurity band conduction in overcoming the limitations of conventional p-type doping in Al-rich aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN). First, a model is developed to understand the impurity band conduction mechanism in Mg-doped AlGaN. It is hypothesized that at high Mg doping concentrations (mid-1019 cm-3) -below the Mott transition-, the overlap of the Mg dopant states can cause the dopant energy level to split into a quasi-continuous impurity band. This provides an alternate route for conduction, where the carriers can propagate through the impurity band with a much-reduced activation energy as compared to the relatively large Mg ionization energy required for the valence band transport. It is worthwhile to note that the presence of compensating point defects can disrupt the overlap of the Mg orbitals and, hence, impede the formation of the impurity band. Mg-doped Al-rich AlGaN epilayers were grown on sapphire and single-crystal AlN substrates by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. In accordance with the model, relatively heavy Mg doping in conjunction with compensation control was found to be critical to induce the impurity band formation. Record-low p-type resistivities of 9.7 and 37 Ωcm were achieved in Al0.7Ga0.3N and Al0.8Ga0.2N films grown on the native substrate. The resistivity exhibited shallow activation energy of ~30 meV for a wide temperature range of 150-500K. Valence band conduction associated with a large Mg ionization energy was observed to dominate above 500K. Interestingly, the Hall coefficient data was found to deviate from classical semiconductor physics. The apparently anomalous results were attributed to the fact that the Hall effect associated with the carriers propagating in the impurity band differs qualitatively from the quasi-free motion of holes in the valence band leading to a fundamentally different Hall scattering factor. This work demonstrates the utility of impurity band conduction to achieve technologically relevant p-type conductivity in Al-rich AlGaN. Al-rich AlGaN devices are poised to enable a host of optoelectronic applications owing to their desired properties such as low size, weight, and potential operating power. While Si doping has been demonstrated to be effective in achieving n-type Al-rich AlGaN films, efficient p-type doping remains a significant challenge. Mg, the most explored p-type dopant in AlGaN presents a rather high ionization energy of >400 meV. This creates a fundamental bottleneck as only a small fraction of the Mg atoms ionizes at room temperature to generate free holes. This results in a high resistivity >100 Ωcm in Mg-doped Al-rich AlGaN grown via the conventional Mg doping approach. While alternate doping approaches such as short-period superlattices, composition modulation, and Mg delta doping allow for low lateral resistivity in p-AlGaN the vertical conduction is limited due to the barriers associated with the periodic oscillation of the energy bands. The polarization-graded AlGaN approach, on the other hand, necessitates the grading toward Ga-rich compositions to achieve high hole concentration and to favor the Ohmic contact formation. This approach suffers from UV-C absorption loss in the p-type layer, significantly decreasing the light extraction efficiency in optoelectronic devices. Therefore, it is of significance to devise techniques for achieving low p-type resistivity in Al-rich AlGaN without modulating the composition or the doping profile.

Achieving Technologically Relevant P-Type Conductivity in Al-Rich (>70% Al) AlGaN Using Impurity Band Conduction

Recently, beryllium has regained attention as a potential p-type dopant in III-Nitrides due to its shallower acceptor level than magnesium. We recently reported the first systematic investigation of GaN:Be grown using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) [1]. Despite the successful incorporation of Be into GaN grown by MOCVD, conductive p-type GaN:Be has yet to be realized. This may be in part due to poor incorporation efficiency of Be under normal growth conditions where [Be] saturates at about 1–5×1018 cm-3. Techniques to increase [Be] such as using a pulsed growth method have been successful, but result in material degradation and p-type conductivity was still not achieved. Furthermore, a prominent YLBe band in photoluminescence studies indicates the presence of a deep donor, which may be responsible for the compensation of activated Be. Co-doping GaN with Be and Mg has been suggested as a possible way to increase Be incorporation and suppress YLBe, and initial studies using MBE-grown GaN:Be+Mg showed promise [2,3]. However, no comprehensive studies were performed, and this technique has never been attempted using MOCVD. Because Be and Mg induce local tensile and compressive strains, respectively, due to their atomic sizes relative to Ga, co-doping may improve solid solubility of both species and encourage incorporation of acceptors into electrically active Ga sites. In this work, we investigate the effects of Be+Mg co-doping in GaN. Several different doping conditions are studied, including Be+Mg continuous co-coping and layered Be and Mg doped layers. The effects of co-doping on Be and Mg incorporation, material quality, activation efficiency, and conductivity are discussed and compared to the results of singly doped GaN. [1] B. McEwen, et al., MOCVD Growth and Characterization of Be-Doped GaN. ACS Appl. Electron. Mater., 4(8), 3780-3785 (2023). [2] F. B. Naranjo, et al., Study of the Effects of Mg and Be Co-Doping in GaN Layers. Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 180(1), 97-102 (2000). [3] A. Kawaharazuka, Be and Mg co-doping in GaN. J. Cryst Growth, 301, 414-416 (2007).

MOCVD GaN Co-Doped with Mg and Be

The performance potential of ideal infrared detectors is fundamentally limited by the thermally generated diffusion and depletion dark currents of the infrared absorbing layer due to its narrow energy gap and consequently large intrinsic carrier concentration. Dark current manifests as shot noise in the detector, which leads to a decrease in sensitivity as the square root of the magnitude of the dark current. Although decreasing the operating temperature is an effective strategy to reduce dark current, active cooling of the device increases system size, weight, and power, which is not tolerable for certain applications. An alternative strategy, utilized to great effect in the nBn infrared detector architecture, is to hinder the formation of depletion regions in the narrow-gap material and thereby eliminate the depletion current. This can greatly reduce the total dark current as depletion current is proportional to intrinsic carrier concentration, whereas diffusion current is proportional to the equilibrium minority carrier concentration. Unfortunately, despite the ability to minimize the equilibrium minority carrier concentration by increasing the doping concentration, inclusion of donor impurities also increases the Shockley-Read-Hall and Auger recombination mechanisms, which in turn increases diffusion dark current, limiting its reduction via doping. Furthermore, reduction of the minority carrier lifetime decreases the diffusion partial quantum efficiency, which also degrades detector sensitivity. Therefore, a complex trade-off exists between doping density’s effects on dark current and minority carrier lifetime which can be balanced to achieve an optimum detector sensitivity. Here, an investigation on the effects of material parameters on minimal attainable shot noise-limited noise equivalent irradiance is performed using models of diffusion current density as well as diffusion partial quantum efficiency derived from carrier continuity equations. The model is then verified using Silvaco TCAD simulations of nBn devices. Additionally, two mid-wave infrared InGaAs/InAsSb superlattice nBn detectors grown with different absorber doping densities are characterized and compared to the model results.

Sensitivity Optimization in Diffusion-Limited Infrared Detectors

β-gallium oxide (β-Ga2O3) is of intense current interest because of its ultra-wide bandgap, high critical field, and availability of melt-grown substrates. Point defects and complexes determine the properties of bulk crystals as well as epitaxial layers, thus, predictive models of defect concentrations under various impurity and processing scenarios are of very high value. First-principle calculations of defect energetics have provided critical insights into the defect system in β-Ga2O3, but translating computed enthalpies into defect concentrations corresponding to real-world crystal growth requires additional steps. Growth or annealing experiments typically control the sample trajectory in terms of temperatures and partial pressures, while computation papers frequently present results holding chemical potentials constant. Here we report our quantitative modelling of equilibrium defect concentrations in Ga2O3, taking into account especially the temperature dependence of the bandgap and temperature-dependent chemical potentials from the Ga-O system’s known thermochemistry. Additionally, we compute results for realistic sample types such as Fe- or Sn-doped wafers accounting for the fixed concentrations of these impurities as opposed to their fixed chemical potentials. Results are presented for various background n-type doping and for equilibrium and quenching, corresponding respectively to 0 or infinite cooling rates. We find significant departures from prior simpler predictions, especially in the case of the bandgap temperature dependence. We compare our predicted results to empirically-known cases, such as annealing in O2 or Ga2O vapors. Finally, to give semi-quantitative insight into defect concentrations expected in finite-sized samples subjected to finite cooling rates without full-fledged multidimensional defect reaction-diffusion simulations, we introduce the concept of generalized quenching as a 3rd type of computation. At the heart of generalized quenching is the insight that, because of their different diffusion constants, different types of defects located at different distances from free surfaces will be “frozen-in” at different temperatures. Essentially by combining equilibrium and quenching calculations, it is thus possible to predict the defect concentrations present following cooling as a function of radius within a boule or within thin films of different thicknesses. We compare these results to the known phenomena from bulk crystal growth, indicating differences in carrier density between the center and periphery of CZ-grown boules.

Temperature-Dependent Calculations of β-Ga2O3 Defect Concentrations for Equilibrium, Full Quenching and Generalized Quenching Scenarios

Gallium oxide (Ga2O3), an emerging ultra-wide bandgap semiconductor material with a bandgap ~ 4.8 eV, occurs in the trigonal , monoclinic , cubic and orthorhombic polymorphs. The thermodynamic stable phase of β-Ga2O3 has been the primary focus for future power electronic devices due to the availability of semi-insulating to n-type doped free-standing substrates. Although γ-Ga2O3 has been identified as the least stable phase, γ-Ga2O3 inclusions have been found in many β-Ga2O3 films, particularly when Al or Mg is present. 1–3 These γ-phase inclusions are recognized as a potential problem for devices based on β-Ga2O3.1 In this study, Ga2O3 films were deposited on (100) MgAl2O4 in the temperature range of 550 °C to 850 °C via metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). Post-deposition thermal treatments were conducted in air at temperatures between 800 °C to 1000 °C. The phase composition and nanostructure of the as-grown and annealed films were investigated using X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Phase-pure β-Ga2O3 was observed in the films deposited at 550°C and 650 °C, whereas γ-Ga2O3 -based solid solutions (hereafter referred to as γ-phase) were formed at 850°C, and a mixture of β-Ga2O3 and γ-phase were observed in the films grown at 750°C. The transformation of β-Ga2O3 to γ-phase originated at the film/substrate interface and was accompanied by interdiffusion of Al and Mg from the substrate. The minimum atomic percent of Al + Mg associated with the phase transformation was determined to be ~ 4.6 at%. Atomic scale TEM characterization indicates that Al and Mg have a strong preference for octahedral sites whereas Ga prefers the tetrahedral sites, to form an inverse spinel structure. It is postulated that the octahedral site preference of Al and Mg drives the β-Ga2O3 to γ-phase transition and, as a result, enhances the observed thermal stability of the γ-phase at elevated temperatures. 1 C.S. Chang, N. Tanen, V. Protasenko, T.J. Asel, S. Mou, H.G. Xing, D. Jena, and D.A. Muller, APL Mater. 9, (2021). 2 A.F.M.A.U. Bhuiyan, Z. Feng, J.M. Johnson, H.L. Huang, J. Sarker, M. Zhu, M.R. Karim, B. Mazumder, J. Hwang, and H. Zhao, APL Mater. 8, (2020). 3 Q. Hou, K. Liu, X. Chen, J. Yang, Q. Ai, Z. Cheng, Y. Zhu, B. Li, L. Liu, and D. Shen, Physica Status Solidi - Rapid Research Letters 16, (2022).

Phase Transformation of β-Ga2O3 to Ga2O3 -Based γ-Phase Spinels on (100) MgAl2O4 Substrate

Gallium oxide (Ga2O3) is a conducting transparent semiconducting oxide and ultra-wide bandgap material which allows for a large critical electric field that maximizes frequency and voltage operation. Due to its large Baliga’s figure of merit (3200 * Si) and inexpensive melt-growth methods, Ga2O3 is of interest in electrical and optical applications [1, 2, 3]. β-Ga2O3 is the most chemically and thermally stable phase with an anisotropic bandgap between 4.5 and 4.9 eV, depending on orientation [1, 2, 3]. To control the electrical and optical properties of Ga2O3 and aluminum gallium oxide alloy (AGO) within devices, understanding where their defects come from and how they develop is important. For example, although point defects can be used to control their properties, e.g. doping, extended defects tend to negatively impact their operation. As such, identifying the types of defects caused by growth or fabrication processes is important for developing those processes and reducing undesirable defects. One method to characterize defects is through photoluminescence (PL) which is a noninvasive process. For β-Ga2O3, the PL spectrum is broad over the UV, blue, and green wavelengths making deconvolving the spectra extremely difficult [1, 2]. There have been studies in the literature to determine the origin of the β-Ga2O3 spectra, but those studies typically focus on point defects as a cause [1]. Here, the correlation between sample quality and extended defects is possible with PL and PL Microscopy (PLM). Comparing β-Ga2O3 or AGO films and bulk samples shows that extended defects have an essential role in the PL emission. Homogeneous films with no extended defects and bulk crystals will yield a UV dominant PL emission. Samples of poor film quality that have extended defects throughout will have a dominant blue PL emission. This means the quality of a sample, in terms of the density or extended defects, can be determined through PL [1]. Furthermore, sample topography and extended defects can be identified through PLM [2]. Single crystal samples have uniform UV emission. That said, any topography can alter the emission intensity due to refraction and diffraction. Furthermore, any topography that is altered due to defects also causes a contrast in emission intensity. As such, PLM tends to match AFM and SEM images. But, there are cases where PLM can diverge from AFM and SEM due to other extended defects within the film, which are more luminescent than surface defects/topography. Some defects identified using PLM include cracks running along [001] on AGO films, rotational domains found in β-Ga2O3 grown on sapphire, incoherent stacking faults from (-201) β-Ga2O3 grown on Fe-doped β-Ga2O3, and sympetalous defects which are a newly discovered defect [2]. The sympetalous defect is found on metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxy (MOVPE) films grown on (010) Ga2O3. This defect generally grows out from underlying line defects in the substrate, such as nano-pipes, which is similar to v-defects found in GaN. The defect creates a polycrystalline region in the film, expanding out from the initial starting line defect seed [3]. PL shows that the sympetalous defects are polarization-dependent. Furthermore, circular polarization also shows luminescence likely caused by the defect grains having a semi-helix growth with themselves and/or bulk crystal surrounding the defect [3]. Lastly, the quality of a sample can be determined by looking at the density and surface size range of defects on the surface of a sample. Sympetalous defects are similar in size and have the same density as substrate etch-pits. Nodular defects, on the other hand, have a wide variety of sizes and density that increases with thickness [3]. [1] J. Cooke, et al., Scientific Reports, 12, 3243 (2022). [2] J. Cooke, et al., Optical Material Express, 12 (11), 4341 (2022). [3] J. Cooke, et al., J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 41 (1), 013406 (2023).

Characterization Analysis of Extended Defects in β-Ga2O3 and AGO

Gallium oxide (Ga2O3) has an extremely wide bandgap, predicted high breakdown field, and can be produced from melt crystal growth techniques making it attractive for next-generation high-power electronics. It is well-known that the optical transitions in monoclinic β-Ga2O3 are anisotropic; the threshold energies for carrier generation using linearly polarized light depend on crystallographic direction. Using transmission optical spectroscopy, which probes subtly differently than e.g. ellipsometry, we have investigated the optical transitions of Fe doped [100] β-Ga2O3 as function of elevated temperature and have documented the dramatic bandgap narrowing with temperature which was recently explained using density functional theory [1]. Here we also report on the anisotropy and doping dependencies of the disorder-induced Urbach tails in the optical absorption coefficient for β-Ga2O3. Band tails in semiconductors depend on both static disorder and the dynamic disorder induced by phonons mediated by the electron-phonon coupling. Given the low symmetry of β-Ga2O3 and its strong electron-phonon coupling, we predicted that the Urbach tails should also exhibit significant anisotropy. We show that this is indeed the case, and also provide results for UID- and Fe-doped crystals both of which exhibit larger band tails as expected. References [1]. Lee, C., Rock, N.D., Islam, A., Scarpulla, M.A. and Ertekin, E., 2023. Electron–phonon effects and temperature-dependence of the electronic structure of monoclinic β-Ga2O3. APL Materials, 11(1), p.011106.

Temperature Dependence of Bandgap and Anisotropy in Urbach Tails in β- Ga2O3

Scanning gate microscopy (SGM) is a powerful imaging technique that allows for the characterization of the coherent electron flow in low-dimensional structures such as quantum constrictions and short quantum wires. The technique utilizes the effect of a charged scanning probe on the electron flow, resulting in a signal that can be related to the local density of states of the device. However, obtaining meaningful information from SGM measurements can be challenging due to the stringent conditions required for the technique to be effective. In this study, we propose a novel approach for using SGM to estimate the disordered background potential of quantum constrictions by utilizing a machine learning-based method. This approach involves matching SGM signals obtained through a weak perturbation approach to a corresponding background potential and then using transfer learning to experimentally obtained SGM images. By studying the potentials that a single electron would experience, this approach enables the characterization of the disordered potentials and their impact on the electron flow in quantum constrictions. For this study, we performed a comprehensive investigation of the electron flow in a quantum point contact (QPC) fabricated on an InAlAs/InGaAs/InAlAs quantum well. The electron density of the QPC was determined to be 7.2×1011 cm-2 and the mobility was measured to be 7.4×104 cm2/V.s by performing Shubnikov-de Haas measurements at a temperature of 280 mK. This corresponds to an electron path of 1.2 um. On the theoretical side, we employed the non-equilibrium Green's function approach to obtain images of the electron flow in the QPC. In order to estimate the background potential in the QPC, we employed a swarming search algorithm. This algorithm utilized a population of different potentials to compute an SGM signal, and only those potentials that were closest to the experimental measurement were selected for further analysis. Our results reveal a strong correlation between low conductance values and more granular and rougher potentials. This is consistent with the expectation that low conductance states are associated with Fermi levels closer to the background potential level. To further investigate the properties of the estimated background potential, we have employed clustering analysis. This analysis revealed that the average cluster radius is comparable to the Bohr radius of InGaAs, providing insight into the size and spatial distribution of the potential fluctuations in the quantum constriction. Additionally, we have estimated the static alloy potential of the quantum constriction using our proposed approach. Comparison of the estimated potential with the SGM images showed good spatial agreement, indicating the accuracy of our approach in characterizing the potential landscape of quantum constrictions. Our results provide insight into the underlying physics of electron flow in low-dimensional systems and demonstrate the potential of combining experimental and theoretical approaches for characterizing quantum point contacts. They also provide a new understanding of the relationship between the conductance of a quantum constriction and the underlying potential landscape and demonstrate the potential of our proposed approach for characterizing the static alloy potential in quantum constrictions.

Estimating the Background Potential of Quantum Constrictions Using Scanning Gate Microscopy and Machine Learning

The methodology and design behind TESCAN TENSOR - the world’s first Integrated, Precession-assisted, Analytical 4D-STEM will be presented. An advanced (electron diffraction) microscope, with STEM, 4D-STEM and STEM Tomography applications, TESCAN TENSOR will be shown to be the solution of choice for a range of nanoscale applications. These include multimodal characterization of functional materials, semiconductor thin films, and submicron, synthetic and natural particle crystals. Examples including results from battery and semiconductor device applications will be presented. Designed from the ground up to provide quality, throughput, and robustness of 4D-STEM acquisition, analysis, and processing, TESCAN TENSOR has been optimized with state-of-the-art technologies, such as Precession Electron Diffraction (PED), 4D-STEM computing and visualization, electrostatic beam blanking, and ultra-high vacuum at the specimen area. Additionally, TESCAN TENSOR features near real-time, automated data analysis, whereby on-the-fly processing presents first results during acquisition. As a result, TESCAN TENSOR allows the operator to focus on data acquisition and analysis, rather than time consuming manual microscope alignments. 4D-STEM phase and orientation analysis of lithium-ion battery anode materials. A precession-assisted, analytical 4D-STEM, TESCAN TENSOR, provides a solution for nanoscale phase and orientation mapping of phase separations and crystallographic ordering. Precession-assisted 4D-STEM was used to produce maps of LiTi2(PO4)3, TiO2 and LiTiOPO4 phases present in spindle-like battery anode particles. 4D-STEM phase analysis will be presented showing that TiO2 nanoparticles form a network at the LiTi2(PO4)3 sub-particle boundaries, which may provide a more effective diffusion pathway for lithium ions at higher cycling rates. Due to the fine polycrystalline nature of these networks, conventional phase analysis with TEM selected area diffraction or high-resolution imaging, is not practical. Additionally, the presence of titanium in both LiTi2(PO4)3 and TiO2 phases complicates robust identification of grains with EDX analysis. Multimodal phase and orientation analysis of complex semiconductor devices. For semiconductor manufacturers, it is desired to have comprehensive analytical capabilities, with the ability to measure chemical and structural properties, complementary to specimen morphology, down to the sub-nanometer scale. This is generally addressed using Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) mapping, defect analysis through diffraction measurements, crystal orientation and phase mapping, and critical dimension imaging. These capabilities are important as the electrical performance of devices depends strongly on the type and distribution of crystalline phases in individual layers. Analytical electron microscopy, incorporating EDX, and phase/orientation analyses is therefore crucial for both process development and failure analysis. The TESCAN TENSOR analytical 4D-STEM provides a unique workflow interface to facilitate efficient chemical and structural analysis using EDX mapping, and precession-assisted phase and orientation mapping. The alignment and workflow automation enables effortless, automated switching between measurements optimized for STEM imaging, EDX analysis, or analytical 4D-STEM. While EDX maps are useful for rapid evaluation of elemental distributions, they cannot be used to conclusively determine phase distributions or segregations, this is instead investigated using precession electron diffraction assisted 4D-STEM. TESCAN TENSOR provides a solution for robust, multimodal, nano-characterization of complex semiconductor devices made up of multiple phases with real-time data analysis and processing for the benefit of process development and failure analysis.

TESCAN TENSOR a 4D-STEM for Multimodal Characterization of Challenging and Interesting Specimens

We report on the growth and characterization of in-situ Al2O3 on (010) β-Ga2O3 deposited using metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) to enhance the dielectric quality and lifetime. The growth of Al2O3 is performed after the growth of β-Ga2O3 without breaking the vacuum in an Agnitron MOVPE reactor with far injection showerhead design using Trimethylaluminum (TMAl) and Oxygen as precursor gas. The interfacial dielectric layer (First 5 nm) is grown at 800 °C to crystallize the interface to have reduced interface trap density and the rest of the dielectric (17 nm) is grown at 600 °C. Thickness of the grown Al2O3 layer was extracted to be ~22 nm using Xray reflectivity measurements. Grazing incident Xray diffraction analysis was performed and polycrystalline inclusions were observed in the grown Al2O3 films. The dielectrics grown at 600 °C exhibited higher interface trap densities (Dt = 3.2×1012 cm-2) and lower breakdown fields (EBR=6 MV/cm) when compared to the dielectrics grown at 800 °C (EBR= 10 MV/cm, Dt=5.4×1011 cm-2) as is evident from the hysteresis and the trap density vs energy characterization which were determined using deep-UV assisted CV measurements and the current-voltage characteristics of the MOS capacitor test structures. The temperature-modulated dielectric sample (interfacial layer grown at 800 °C, and the bulk dielectric grown at 600 °C) has higher breakdown strength (EBR=7.7 MV/cm) and lower trap density (Dt = 1.1×1012 cm-2) compared to the dielectric grown at 600 °C. This is possibly due to the interfacial crystallization of the hybrid dielectric due to the initial growth at higher temperature. Time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) (current vs stress time) was performed to characterize the long-term reliability of the grown dielectrics. From the Weibull distribution plots of the time to breakdown for four different TDDB stress conditions, a shape factor of β > 1 is observed which indicates good statistical uniformity and intrinsic breakdown behavior. The TDDB distribution is much tighter (higher β value) for the 600 °C dielectric, compared to the 800 C grown dielectric. This is possibly due to the short-range ordering of the 800 °C dielectric compared to the 600 °C dielectric, which reduces the long-term reliability of the dielectric. However, for the hybrid dielectric, the time to breakdown is found to be more tightly distributed when compared to both 600 °C & 800 °C dielectric. Based on the E-model (field-based model), the lifetime of the 800 °C can be extended to 10 years if the dielectrics are stressed at 0.7 MV/cm, whereas the lifetime of the hybrid dielectric can be extended to 10 years if it is stressed at 3.1 MV/cm. Thus although the static breakdown voltage and trap densities of the hybrid dielectric are a little inferior compared to the 800 °C dielectric, the long term reliability of the hybrid dielectric is much superior. This approach of in-situ dielectric deposition on β-Ga2O3 can pave the way for promising robust gate dielectrics for future β-Ga2O3 based high performance MOSFETs due to its promise of improved interface and bulk quality and long-term reliability compared to other conventional dielectric deposition techniques. We acknowledge funding from AFOSR MURI program under Award No. FA9550-21-0078 (PM: Dr. Ali Sayir).

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