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Most studies on word-level Quality Estimation (QE) of machine translation focus on language-specific models. The obvious disadvantages of these approaches are the need for labelled data for each language pair and the high cost required to maintain several language-specific models. To overcome these problems, we explore different approaches to multilingual, word-level QE. We show that multilingual QE models perform on par with the current language-specific models. In the cases of zero-shot and few-shot QE, we demonstrate that it is possible to accurately predict word-level quality for any given new language pair from models trained on other language pairs. Our findings suggest that the word-level QE models based on powerful pre-trained transformers that we propose in this paper generalise well across languages, making them more useful in real-world scenarios.

IJCNLP-AACL 2021

An Exploratory Analysis of Multilingual Word-Level Quality Estimation with Cross-Lingual Transformers

multilingual models

machine translation. translation quality estimation

transformers

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The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP).

technical paper

Disease is one of the fundamental entities in biomedical research. Recognizing such entities from biomedical text and then normalizing them to a standardized disease vocabulary offer a tremendous opportunity for many downstream applications. Previous studies have demonstrated that joint modeling of the two sub-tasks has superior performance than the pipelined counterpart. Although the neural joint model based on multi-task learning framework has achieved state-of-the-art performance, it suffers from the boundary inconsistency problem due to the separate decoding procedures. Moreover, it ignores the rich information (e.g., the text surface form) of each candidate concept in the vocabulary, which is quite essential for entity normalization. In this work, we propose a neural transition-based joint model to alleviate these two issues. We transform the end-to-end disease recognition and normalization task as an action sequence prediction task, which not only jointly learns the model with shared representations of the input, but also jointly searches the output by state transitions in one search space. Moreover, we introduce attention mechanisms to take advantage of the text surface form of each candidate concept for better normalization performance. Experimental results conducted on two publicly available datasets show the effectiveness of the proposed method.

A Neural Transition-based Joint Model for Disease Named Entity Recognition and Normalization

Event Detection (ED) aims to identify event trigger words from a given text and classify it into an event type. 
Most current methods to ED rely heavily on training instances, and almost ignore the correlation of event types. Hence, they tend to suffer from data scarcity and fail to handle new unseen event types. 
To address these problems, we formulate ED as a process of event ontology population: linking event instances to pre-defined event types in event ontology, and propose a novel ED framework entitled OntoED with ontology embedding. 
We enrich event ontology with linkages among event types, and further induce more event-event correlations. 
Based on the event ontology, OntoED can leverage and propagate correlation knowledge, particularly from data-rich to data-poor event types. 
Furthermore, OntoED can be applied to new unseen event types, by establishing linkages to existing ones. 
Experiments indicate that OntoED is more predominant and robust than previous approaches to ED, especially in data-scarce scenarios.

OntoED: Low-resource Event Detection with Ontology Embedding

Self-training has proven effective for improving NMT performance by augmenting model training with synthetic parallel data. The common practice is to construct synthetic data based on a randomly sampled subset of large-scale monolingual data, which we empirically show is sub-optimal. In this work, we propose to improve the sampling procedure by selecting the most informative monolingual sentences to complement the parallel data. To this end, we compute the uncertainty of monolingual sentences using the bilingual dictionary extracted from the parallel data. Intuitively, monolingual sentences with lower uncertainty generally correspond to easy-to-translate patterns which may not provide additional gains. Accordingly, we design an uncertainty-based sampling strategy to efficiently exploit the monolingual data for self-training, in which monolingual sentences with higher uncertainty would be sampled with higher probability. Experimental results on large-scale WMT English⇒German and English⇒Chinese datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Extensive analyses suggest that emphasizing the learning on uncertain monolingual sentences by our approach does improve the translation quality of high-uncertainty sentences and also benefits the prediction of low-frequency words at the target side.

Self-Training Sampling with Monolingual Data Uncertainty for Neural Machine Translation

Five years after the first published proofs of concept, direct approaches to speech translation (ST) are now competing with traditional cascade solutions. In light of this steady progress, can we claim that the performance gap between the two is closed? Starting from this question, we present a systematic comparison between state-of-the-art systems representative of the two paradigms. Focusing on three language directions (English-German/Italian/Spanish), we conduct automatic and manual evaluations, exploiting high-quality professional post-edits and annotations. Our multi-faceted analysis on one of the few publicly available ST benchmarks attests for the first time that: i) the gap between the two paradigms is now closed, and ii) the subtle differences observed in their behavior are not sufficient for humans neither to distinguish them nor to prefer one over the other.

Cascade versus Direct Speech Translation: Do the Differences Still Make a Difference?

Unsupervised machine translation, which utilizes unpaired monolingual corpora as training data, has achieved comparable performance against supervised machine translation. However, it still suffers from data-scarce domains. To address this issue, this paper presents a novel meta-learning algorithm for unsupervised neural machine translation (UNMT) that trains the model to adapt to another domain by utilizing only a small amount of training data. We assume that domain-general knowledge is a significant factor in handling data-scarce domains. Hence, we extend the meta-learning algorithm, which utilizes knowledge learned from high-resource domains, to boost the performance of low-resource UNMT. Our model surpasses a transfer learning-based approach by up to 2-3 BLEU scores. Extensive experimental results show that our proposed algorithm is pertinent for fast adaptation and consistently outperforms other baselines.

Unsupervised Neural Machine Translation for Low-Resource Domains via Meta-Learning

Lifelong topic models mainly focus on in-domain text streams in which each chunk only contains documents from a single domain. To overcome data diversity of the in-domain corpus, most of the existing methods exploit the information from limited sources in a separate and heuristic manner. In this study, we develop a lifelong collaborative model (LCM) based on non-negative matrix factorization to accurately learn topics and domain-specific word embeddings. LCM particularly investigates: (1) developing a knowledge graph based on the semantic relationships among words in the lifelong learning process, so as to accumulate global context information discovered by topic models and local context information reflected by context word embeddings from previous domains, and (2) developing a subword graph based on byte pair encoding and pairwise word relationships to exploit subword information of words in the current in-domain corpus. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to collaboratively learn topics and word embeddings via lifelong learning. Experiments on real-world in-domain text streams validate the effectiveness of our method.

Lifelong Learning of Topics and Domain-Specific Word Embeddings

Interactive argument pair identification is essential in the context of dialogical argumentation mining. Existing research treats it as a problem of sentence matching and largely relies on textual information to compute the similarities. However, the interaction of opinions usually involves the background of the topic and requires reasoning of knowledge, which is beyond textual information. In this paper, we propose to leverage external knowledge to enhance the identification of interactive argument pairs. We construct the argumentation knowledge graph from the discussion thread of the target topic in the online forum. The interaction between the original argument and the reply is then represented as the path of concepts in the knowledge graph. In practice, we utilize Graph Convolutional Network (GCN) to learn the concept representation in the knowledge graph and use a Transformer-based encoder to learn the representation of paths. Finally, an information alignment network is employed to capture the interaction of textual information of conceptual information (both concept-level and path-level). Experiment results indicate that our model achieves state-of-the-art performance in the benchmark dataset. Further analysis demonstrates the effectiveness of our model for enforcing knowledge reasoning through paths in the knowledge graph.

Leveraging Argumentation Knowledge Graph for Interactive Argument Pair Identification

Scheduled sampling is an effective method to alleviate the exposure bias problem of neural machine translation. It simulates the inference scene by randomly replacing ground-truth target input tokens with predicted ones during training. Despite its success, its critical schedule strategies are merely based on training steps, ignoring the real-time model competence, which limits its potential performance and convergence speed. To address this issue, we propose confidence-aware scheduled sampling. Specifically, we quantify real-time model competence by the confidence of model predictions, based on which we design fine-grained schedule strategies. In this way, the model is exactly exposed to predicted tokens for high-confidence positions and still ground-truth tokens for low-confidence positions. Moreover, we observe vanilla scheduled sampling suffers from degenerating into the original teacher forcing mode since most predicted tokens are the same as ground-truth tokens. Therefore, under the above confidence-aware strategy, we further expose more noisy tokens (e.g., wordy and incorrect word order) instead of predicted ones for high-confidence token positions. We evaluate our approach on the Transformer and conduct experiments on large-scale WMT 2014 English-German, WMT 2014 English-French, and WMT 2019 Chinese-English. Results show that our approach significantly outperforms the Transformer and vanilla scheduled sampling on both translation quality and convergence speed.

Confidence-Aware Scheduled Sampling for Neural Machine Translation

Incorporating attribute information such as user and product features into deep neural networks has been proven to be useful in sentiment analysis. Previous works typically accomplished this in two manners: concatenate multiple attributes to word/text representation or treat them as a bias to adjust attention distribution. To leverage the advantages of both methods, this paper proposes a multi-attribute BERT (MA-BERT) to incorporate external attribute knowledge. The proposed method has two advantages. First, it applies multi-attribute transformer (MA-Transformer) encoders to incorporate multiple attributes into both input representation and attention distribution. Second, the MA-Transformer is implemented as a universal layer and stacked on a BERT-based model such that it can be initialized from a pre-trained checkpoint and fine-tuned for the downstream applications without extra costs on pre-training. Experiments on three benchmark datasets show that the proposed method outperformed pre-trained BERT models and other methods incorporating external attribute knowledge.

MA-BERT: Learning Representation by Incorporating Multi-Attribute Knowledge in Transformers

Previous work on adversarial attacks on dependency parsers has mostly focused on attack methods, as opposed to the quality of adversarial examples, which in previous work has been relatively low. To address this gap, we propose a method to generate high-quality adversarial examples with a higher number of candidate generators and stricter filters, and then verify their quality using automatic and human evaluations. We perform analysis with different parsing models and observe that: (i) injecting words not used in the training stage is an effective attack strategy; (ii) adversarial examples generated against a parser strongly depend on the parser model, the token embeddings, and even the specific instantiation of the model (i.e., a random seed). We use these insights to improve the robustness of English parsing models, relying on adversarial training and model ensembling.

An Exploratory Analysis of Multilingual Word-Level Quality Estimation with Cross-Lingual Transformers

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