Japan

Studies of the origin and evolution of high-level cultural trait complexes have recently become a focus of attention and research has begun to show the interaction of ecological, economic, and political factors in the evolution of human societies (e.g., Whitehouse et al 2018). This paper presents a case study of the evolution of science, relating stages in this evolution to cognitive heuristics; considered from the perspective of the need to avoid their associated cognitive illusions. Science is a good subject for this since it has well-defined goals that places strict limits on methods that can be employed and forms of cognition consistent with these goals. Three decision heuristics discovered by Tversky and Kahneman (1974) correlate with three crisis periods in the history of science. Each crisis required discovery of methodological tools to avoid associated illusions. The sequential development of science serves as a phylogenetic lineage (Boyd et al 1996). The lesson this presents for today is the necessity of discovering ways to harmonizing different sets of cultural values. 

Whitehouse, H. et al (2018) A new era in the study of global history is born but it needs to be nurtured. Journal of Cognitive Historiography 5(1-2). 
Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. (1974) Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Science Vol 185, No. 4157, 1124 – 1131.
Boyd, R. et al (1997) Are cultural phylogenies possible? In P. Weingart, S.D. Mitchel, P.J. Richerson, and S. Maasen (eds.) Human By Nature: Between Biology and the Social Sciences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 355 – 386.

Cultural Evolution Society 2021

Evolution of Science as an Example of Cultural Evolution

Welcome to the Cultural Evolution Society (CES) Conference 2024, which was a hybrid conference held at Durham University (UK). The conference was hosted in Durham by the Durham Cultural Evolution Research Centre (DCERC) with administrative assistance from the CES Transformation Fund team.

**For more information about the CES Conference, please visit the [CES Website Home Page](https://ces2024.webspace.durham.ac.uk/).**

#### Durham Cultural Evolution Research Centre (DCERC) 
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
**Interdisciplinary study of cultural change and diversity**

We are a highly interdisciplinary group of researchers using evolutionary models to study cultural change and diversity. We apply cultural evolutionary methods to a wide variety of topics including cognition, innovation, social learning, technology, art, music, narrative, religion, sociality, language and communication. We have a growing interest in applying cultural evolutionary theory to current societal challenges such as understanding the spread of prosocial health behaviours and health conspiracies. 
**[Discover More](https://www.durham.ac.uk/research/institutes-and-centres/cultural-evolution/)**

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Cultural Evolution Society Conference 2024

The field of cultural evolution is growing in size and scope; its theories, methods and applications - both academic and applied - are getting ever more robust. Do join us in what promises to be an exciting exchange of ideas and a celebration of our field.

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### Conference Welcome

Welcome to the third Cultural Evolution Society Conference, CES2021. In the conference, which will be held from June 9-11, 2021, about 180 researchers from East Asia, Oceania, Middle East, Europe, North and South America give presentations on their latest research advancing the evolutionary understanding of human and nonhuman animal culture.

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Swarm Robotics, which studies collective behaviors of large populations of robots with simple embodied cognition, is an ideal testbed for studying the cultural evolution of language. Our goal is to expand existing simulations in order to explore a dominant theory in evolutionary linguistics - the self-domestication hypothesis - which suggests that reduced reactive aggression led to the sophistication of the cultural niche, enabling the complexification of languages. 

Current swarm robotics models, however, lack several crucial features that are considered prerequisites for this process. Robots are typically collaborative, homogenous, with little to no memory. To mimic self-domestication, an evolutionary advantage for prosociality needs to be introduced, and robots need to be treated as distinct individuals. 

In our model, robots explore their environment while playing a language game. Crucially, we include two novel features: (1) robot individuation: robots have a partner-specificity memory, keeping track of the outcomes of past interactions with specific robots; (2) parameterizable prosociality: robots’ tendency to interact is based on experience: successful communications between robots reduce their aggression toward each other and increase their chance to interact again. With these manipulations, community structure should emerge (robots favoring interaction with some robots over others, i.e., “in-group” bias), and different lexicons should stabilize in different sub-groups in the swarm despite their physical proximity. 

Future steps will introduce an underlying task requiring robots to cooperate using their shared language to achieve a goal. In this context, more complex language structures should evolve, demonstrating the positive feedback loop between increased self-domestication and language complexity.

A swarm robotics model of the cultural evolution of language

Conventions form an essential part of human social and cultural behaviour and may also be important to other animals. Yet, despite the wealth of evidence that has accumulated for culture in non-human animals, we know surprisingly little about non-human conventions beyond a few rare examples. We follow the literature in behavioural ecology and evolution and define conventions as behaviours that solve a coordination problem in which two or more individuals need to display complementary behaviour to obtain a mutually beneficial outcome. We review and discuss the literature on conventions in non-human primates and come to the conclusion that all the ingredients for conventions to emerge are present and therefore that they ought to be more frequently observed. We probe emergence of conventions by using a unique novel experimental system in which two baboons (Papio papio) can voluntarily participate together in touch-screen based cognitive testing and we show that conventions readily emerge in our experimental setup and that they share three fundamental properties of human conventions (arbitrariness, stability and efficiency). These results question the idea that imitation is necessary to establish conventions.

The experimental emergence of convention in a non-human primate

While previous studies testing evolutionary models of religious morality found that beliefs in moralizing and punitive gods decrease local favoritism and increase resource-sharing with distant co-religionists, the effects of beliefs related to local supernatural agents have not been extensively explored. Nam (the spirit of a deceased person) beliefs are quite ambiguous because the spirit may be linked to ancestor worship but also to the practice of sorcery (illegal in Mauritius). Importantly, previous studies suggested that sorcery beliefs and practices can have a damaging impact on social bonds and trust, but such research is often limited by social stigma associated with sorcery and relevant comparison with other local deities is often missing. We show that endorsing the sorcery mode of belief in nam together with performing rituals toward nam was associated with larger probability of breaking the game rules for selfish outcomes in the Random Allocation Game (compared to the ancestor worship mode).

Effects of sorcery beliefs on parochial prosociality in Mauritius

In cultural transmission, information flows from ‘producers’ to ‘receivers’. Transmission biases such as content-, model- and frequency-based biases, which modulate the adoption of cultural traits by receivers, have been explored in depth. We focus instead on a bias on production and compare transmission fidelity when producers either intend to teach or intend to reproduce socially acquired information.

Eighty participants were asked to read a story and reproduce it either in order to ‘teach it to someone else’ or just ‘recall it as accurately as possible’. In order to test whether differences in fidelity between these two tasks were related to information encoding (during reading) or to reproduction, we also manipulated the timing of instructions: Half of the participants were informed of the task (Teach or Recall) Before reding the story and the other half, After reading the story. Participants were arranged in 20 transmission chains of 4 generations. The first generation in each chain read a text about the environment (from Mesoudi et al., 2006), and subsequent generations read the previous participant’s output story. We measured two aspect of fidelity: Quantity and Accuracy of information retained over generations. 

We found that being informed of the task Before reading the story led to higher Accuracy and Quantity than being informed After reading. Surprisingly, Teaching yielded lower Accuracy than Recall, but both resulted in similar Quantity retained. Additional analyses revealed differences in the content of the information under Teaching and Recall. We conclude that aspects of cultural transmission pertaining to production, in particular, intention to teach vs reproduce, influence transmission dynamics and therefore need to be integrated in models of cultural evolution.

Reference
Mesoudi, A., Whiten, A., & Dunbar, R. (2006). A bias for social information in human cultural transmission. British Journal of Psychology, 97(3), 405–423.

Effects of intent (teaching vs accurate reproduction) on the cultural evolution of narratives

Selection for more efficient socially learned behaviors over alternatives is crucial for cultural evolution, however our understanding of this process of cultural selection in animals is limited. Using artificial populations of wild-caught great tits (Parus major), we conducted a cultural diffusion experiment to ask whether more efficient foraging traditions can replace an established tradition, and how this process might be affected by turnover. We show that gradual replacement of individuals greatly increases the probability that a more efficient behavior will out-compete an established inefficient behavior. Turnover does not increase innovation rates, but instead increases adoption rates, as immigrants are more susceptible to the novel, more efficient behavior. We go on to show that this effect might extend beyond birds by using an an agent based model to test the effect of turnover across populations of different types of learners. Altogether, these results provide strong evidence for cultural selection for efficiency in animals, and highlight mechanisms that link population turnover to this process.

The importance of population turnover for the evolution of efficiency

Argument-making, the giving of reasons to believe something, is a central feature of modern life. Ideas spread and are selected for in part because of the arguments we can make on their behalf. While long-standing philosophical accounts parse arguments into deductive, inductive, and potentially abductive patterns, we know very little about the patterns people actually deploy in real-world situations. This leaves us blind to a key selection mechanism in the cultural evolution of ideas. To address this gap, we combine simple tools from natural-language processing with a corpus of over one million argument-making posts in the Reddit forum r/askphilosophy, the “rationalist” website LessWrong, and a corpus of academic articles in philosophy. Our analysis reveals a system of argument-making patterns entirely distinct from the traditional Aristotelian taxonomy. In particular, we show the existence of a certainty-doubt pattern, associated with arguments that compare and contrast relative confidence, a category-making pattern, associated with arguments that consider the sharpness or vagueness of category boundaries, and a question-rephrasing pattern, associated with revising and rewriting a standard view. These provide new insights into social cognition, the dynamics of argument-making in interpersonal exchanges, and the ways that ideas may thrive, or not, on the basis of the argument-patterns they make possible. Our work provides a “plug-and-play” tool for other researchers to analyse the argument patterns their own corpora of interest, and suggests the possibility of new, joint endeavors to look for the universals of argument-making across culture and time.

Argument-Making in the Wild

We review and discuss the role of collaboration in cultural transmission experiments. Collaboration (or collaborative learning) is considered an important variable in human cultural evolution. However, we argue that this is an aspect often underestimated in experimental studies of cultural transmission. We conducted a critical review of cultural transmission experiments to assess whether collaboration takes place, and whether it is a variable of interest in those studies. We found that collaboration is seldom investigated in those studies. We discuss reasons for this and potential future avenues for research.

The role of collaboration in cultural transmission experiments

Evolutionary and cognitive scientists have taken a keen interest in religion, developing theories of its emergence and persistence across cultures. These theories make quite different predictions about atheism. Specifically, cognitive byproduct accounts describe religion as nigh inevitable, and atheism as requiring special cultural scaffolding and cognitive effort to maintain. Dual inheritance approaches, however, describe religious beliefs as emerging only in the presence of consistent context-based learning cues; in this view, atheism naturally results in the absence of consistent cultural cues that one ought to believe in a specific god. We pitted these perspectives against each other by testing the hypothesis -- derived easily from a dual inheritance perspective -- that children of parents whose religions subtly might be less religious and more prone to atheism than are children whose parents display consistent religious cues. Across three large and representative sets, we found consistent evidence that children of mixed-faith parentage are less religious than their consistent-faith-parent peers. In one analysis targeting only USAmericans who grew up in families in which both parents were Christians, children whose parents merely differed in Christian denomination were reliably more likely to become atheists than were children from denominationally-consistent families. This work speaks to the subtle cultural factors that can naturally produce atheism, the important role of context-biased cultural learning in supernatural belief, and the general utility of incorporating cultural evolutionary perspectives in the evolutionary study of religion.

Children of mixed-faith parents are less religious

In darkness and alone, humans fear various “unseen others” – ghosts, monsters, burglars, animals. Previously, I captured such intruder fear accompanied by the intuition of unseen humans’ presence: the “Unpleasant Feeling of Sensed Presence” (UFoP). Initially, Cognitive Science of Religion explained (supernatural) agents’ encounters through the (hyperactive) agency detection module. Following the current critique of cognitive modularity, I argue that it is more promising to think about agency detection in the context of the domain-general mechanism of cognition, the predictive processing. Predictive processing allows context-sensitive learning of respective predators relevant to different ecological and social settings without the need for agent-related fear’ innateness. However, I also argue that the basic fear of predators creeping in the shadows can be understood as a psychological adaptation, considered from Charles Darwin’s times. Therefore, I see ghosts and other scary agents as a product of two intertwined traits – genetically inherited prior schemata and socio-cultural learning, both equally manifesting in a psychological level of personal experience under the condition of uncertainty. In my paper, I will closely describe the presented theoretical argument and illustrate it empirically by the specific UFoP experience captured during my previous studies.

Sensing spirits and other dangerous beings: “Hardwired” intuitions, or cultural learning – or both?

This paper studies the impact of social learning on the formation of close-knit communities. It provides empirical support to the hypothesis, put forth by the historian Fred Shannon in 1945, that local soil heterogeneity limited the ability of American farmers to learn from the experience of their neighbors, and that this contributed to their "traditional individualism." Consistent with this hypothesis, I establish that historically, U.S. counties with a higher degree of soil heterogeneity displayed weaker communal ties. I provide causal evidence on the formation of this pattern in a Difference-in-Differences framework, documenting a reduction in the strength of farmers' communal ties following migration to a soil-heterogeneous county. Using the same design, I also show that soil heterogeneity did not affect the social ties of non-farmers. The impact of soil heterogeneity is long-lasting, still affecting culture today. These findings suggest that, while understudied, social learning is an important determinant of culture.

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