Austria

This paper addresses the critical need for democratizing large language models (LLM) in the Arab world, a region that has seen slower progress in developing models comparable to state-of-the-art offerings like GPT-4 or GPT-3.5, due to a predominant focus on mainstream languages (e.g., English and Chinese). One practical objective for Arabic LLMs is to utilize Arabic-specific vocabulary in the tokenizer to accelerate decoding. However, using a different vocabulary often leads to degradation of the model&#39;s learned knowledge, since many words become out-of-vocabulary (OOV) at the beginning of training. Inspired by the vocabulary learning during Second Language (Arabic) Acquisition for humans, the released AraLLaMA employs progressive vocabulary expansion, which is implemented by a modified BPE algorithm that progressively extends the Arabic subwords in its dynamic vocabulary during training, thereby balancing the OOV ratio at every stage. The ablation study demonstrated the effectiveness of Progressive Vocabulary Expansion.Moreover, AraLLaMA achieves decent performance comparable to the best Arabic LLMs across a variety of Arabic benchmarks. Our model weights are available at: {\url{https://github.com/FreedomIntelligence/AraLLaMa}}.

ACL 2025

Second Language (Arabic) Acquisition of LLMs via Progressive Vocabulary Expansion

vocabulary expansion

arabic llm

second language acquisition

### Welcome to The 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2025)

Message from the General Chair: 
*It is my great pleasure and honor to welcome you to the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2025), held in beautiful Vienna, Austria, from July 27 to August 1, 2025. ACL2025continues our field’s tradition of excellence in scholarship, innovation, and inclusivity, and I am deeply grateful to the many volunteers who have worked tirelessly to bring this event to life.* 
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Welcome to The 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2025)

This paper addresses the critical need for democratizing large language models (LLM) in the Arab world, a region that has seen slower progress in developing models comparable to state-of-the-art offerings like GPT-4 or GPT-3.5, due to a predominant focus on mainstream languages (e.g., English and Chinese). One practical objective for Arabic LLMs is to utilize Arabic-specific vocabulary in the tokenizer to accelerate decoding. However, using a different vocabulary often leads to degradation of the model's learned knowledge, since many words become out-of-vocabulary (OOV) at the beginning of training. Inspired by the vocabulary learning during Second Language (Arabic) Acquisition for humans, the released AraLLaMA employs progressive vocabulary expansion, which is implemented by a modified BPE algorithm that progressively extends the Arabic subwords in its dynamic vocabulary during training, thereby balancing the OOV ratio at every stage. The ablation study demonstrated the effectiveness of Progressive Vocabulary Expansion.Moreover, AraLLaMA achieves decent performance comparable to the best Arabic LLMs across a variety of Arabic benchmarks. Our model weights are available at: {\url{https://github.com/FreedomIntelligence/AraLLaMa}}.

technical paper

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities in natural language processing but exhibit significant performance gaps among different languages. Most existing approaches to address these disparities rely on pretraining or fine-tuning, which are resource-intensive. To overcome these limitations without incurring significant costs, we propose Inference-Time Cross-Lingual Intervention (INCLINE), a novel framework that enhances LLM performance on low-performing (source) languages by aligning their internal representations with those of high-performing (target) languages during inference. INCLINE initially learns alignment matrices using parallel sentences from source and target languages through a Least-Squares optimization, and then applies these matrices during inference to transform the low-performing language representations toward the high-performing language space. Extensive experiments on nine benchmarks with five LLMs demonstrate that INCLINE significantly improves performance across diverse tasks and languages, compared to recent strong baselines. Our analysis demonstrates that INCLINE is highly cost-effective and applicable to a wide range of applications. In addition, we release the code to foster research along this line.

Bridging the Language Gaps in Large Language Models with Inference-Time Cross-Lingual Intervention

Language is a form of symbolic capital that affects people's lives in many ways (Bourdieu1977,1991). As a powerful means of communication, it reflects identities, cultures, traditions, and societies more broadly. Therefore, data in a given language should be regarded as more than just a collection of tokens. Rigorous data collection and labeling practices are essential for developing more human-centered and socially aware technologies. Although there has been growing interest in under-resourced languages within the NLP community, work in this area faces unique challenges, such as data scarcity and limited access to qualified annotators.

In this paper, we collect feedback from individuals directly involved in and impacted by NLP artefacts for medium- and low-resource languages. We conduct both quantitative and qualitative analyses of their responses and highlight key issues related to: (1) data quality, including linguistic and cultural appropriateness; and (2) the ethics of common annotation practices, such as the misuse of participatory research. Based on these findings, we make several recommendations for creating high-quality language artefacts that reflect the cultural milieu of their speakers, while also respecting the dignity and labor of data workers.

Building Better: Avoiding Pitfalls in Developing Language Resources when Data is Scarce

Automatic N-gram based metrics such as ROUGE are widely used for evaluating generative tasks such as summarization. While these metrics are considered indicative (even if imperfect), of human evaluation for English, their suitability for other languages remains unclear. To address this, in this paper we systematically assess evaluation metrics for generation — both n-gram-based and neural-based— to assess their effectiveness across languages and tasks. Specifically, we design a large-scale evaluation suite across eight languages from four typological families — agglutinative, isolating, low-fusional, and high-fusional — from both low- and high-resource languages, to analyze their correlations with human judgments. Our findings highlight the sensitivity of the evaluation metric to the language type at hand. For example, for fusional languages, n-gram-based metrics demonstrate a lower correlation with human assessments, compared to isolating and agglutinative languages. We also demonstrate that tokenization considerations can significantly mitigate this for fusional languages with rich morphology, up to reversing such negative correlations. Additionally, we show that neural-based metrics specifically trained for evaluation, such as COMET, consistently outperform other neural metrics and correlate better than ngrmas metrics with human judgments in low-resource languages. Overall, our analysis highlights the limitations of n-gram metrics for fusional languages and advocates for investment in neural-based metrics trained for evaluation tasks.

Beyond N-Grams: Rethinking Evaluation Metrics and Strategies for Multilingual Abstractive Summarization

Empirical risk minimization (ERM) incentivizes models to exploit shortcuts, i.e., spurious correlations between input attributes and labels that are prevalent in the majority of the training data but unrelated to the task at hand. This reliance hinders generalization on minority examples, where such correlations do not hold. Existing shortcut mitigation approaches are model-specific, difficult to tune, computationally expensive, and fail to improve learned representations. To address these issues, we propose InterpoLated Learning (InterpoLL) which interpolates the representations of majority examples to include features from intra-class minority examples with shortcut-mitigating patterns. This weakens shortcut influence, enabling models to acquire features predictive across both minority and majority examples. Experimental results on multiple natural language understanding tasks demonstrate that InterpoLL improves minority generalization over both ERM and state-of-the-art mitigation methods, without compromising accuracy on majority examples. Notably, these gains persist across encoder, encoder-decoder, and decoder-only architectures, demonstrating the method's broad applicability.

Mitigating Shortcut Learning with InterpoLated Learning

Reward models (RMs) play a crucial role in reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), aligning model behavior with human preferences. However, existing benchmarks for reward models show a weak correlation with the performance of optimized policies, suggesting that they fail to accurately assess the true capabilities of RMs. To bridge this gap, we explore several evaluation designs through the lens of reward overoptimization, i.e., a phenomenon that captures both how well the reward model aligns with human preferences and the dynamics of the learning signal it provides to the policy. The results highlight three key findings on how to construct a reliable benchmark: (i) it is important to minimize differences between chosen and rejected responses beyond correctness, (ii) evaluating reward models requires multiple comparisons across a wide range of chosen and rejected responses, and (iii) given that reward models encounter responses with diverse representations, responses should be sourced from a variety of models. However, we also observe that a extremely high correlation with degree of overoptimization leads to comparatively lower correlation with certain downstream performance. Thus, when designing a benchmark, it is desirable to use the degree of overoptimization as a useful tool, rather than the end goal.

Rethinking Reward Model Evaluation Through the Lens of Reward Overoptimization

We present Sparse Interpolated Mixture-of-Experts (SIMoE) instruction-tuning, an end-to-end algorithm designed to fine-tune a dense pre-trained Large Language Model (LLM) into a MoE-style model that possesses capabilities in multiple specialized domains. During instruction-tuning, SIMoE automatically identifies multiple specialized experts under a specified sparsity constraint, with each expert representing a structurally sparse subset of the seed LLM's parameters that correspond to domain-specific knowledge within the data. SIMoE simultaneously learns an input-dependent expert merging strategy via a router network, leveraging rich cross-expert knowledge for superior downstream generalization that surpasses existing baselines. Empirically, SIMoE consistently achieves state-of-the-art performance on common instruction-tuning benchmarks while maintaining an optimal performance-compute trade-off compared to all baselines.

Automatic Expert Discovery in LLM Upcycling via Sparse Interpolated Mixture-of-Experts

Knowledge distillation can be a cost-effective technique to distill knowledge in Large Language Models, if the teacher output logits can be pre-computed and cached. However, successfully applying this to pre-training remains largely unexplored. In this work, we prove that naive approaches for sparse knowledge distillation such as caching Top-K probabilities, while intuitive, provide biased estimates of teacher probability distribution to the student, resulting in suboptimal performance and calibration. We propose an importance-sampling-based method 'Random Sampling Knowledge Distillation', which provides unbiased estimates, preserves the gradient in expectation, and requires storing significantly sparser logits. Our method enables faster training of student models with marginal overhead (<10%) compared to cross-entropy based training, while maintaining competitive performance compared to full distillation, across a range of model sizes from 300M to 3B.

A Sample Offline Saves Time: Knowledge Distillation in the LLM Era

A range of recent works addresses the problem of compression of sequence of tokens into a shorter sequence of real-valued vectors to be used as inputs instead of token embeddings or key-value cache. These approaches are focused on reduction of the amount of compute in existing language models rather than minimization of number of bits needed to store text. Despite relying on powerful models as encoders, the maximum attainable lossless compression ratio is typically not higher than x10. This fact is highly intriguing because, in theory, the maximum information capacity of large real-valued vectors is far beyond the presented rates even for 16-bit precision and a modest vector size. In this work, we explore the limits of compression by replacing the encoder with a per-sample optimization procedure. We show that vectors with compression ratios up to x1500 exist, which highlights two orders of magnitude gap between existing and practically attainable solutions. Furthermore, we empirically show that the compression limits are determined not by the length of the input but by the amount of uncertainty to be reduced, namely, the cross-entropy loss on this sequence without any conditioning. The obtained limits highlight the substantial gap between the theoretical capacity of input embeddings and their practical utilization, suggesting significant room for optimization in model design.

Cramming 1568 Tokens into a Single Vector and Back Again: Exploring the Limits of Embedding Space Capacity

We introduce TESS 2, a general instruction-following diffusion language model that outperforms contemporary instruction-tuned diffusion models, as well as matches and sometimes exceeds strong autoregressive (AR) models. We train TESS 2 by first adapting a strong AR model via continued pretraining with a diffusion loss and then performing further instruction tuning. We find that adaptation training as well as the choice of the base model is crucial for training good instruction-following diffusion models. We further propose reward guidance, a novel and modular inference-time guidance procedure to align model outputs without needing to train the underlying model. Finally, we show that TESS 2 further improves with increased inference-time compute, highlighting the utility of diffusion LMs in having fine-grained controllability over the amount of compute used at inference time.

SAD-LM: A Large-Scale Generalist Diffusion Language Model

Large language models (LLMs) struggle with maintaining accurate knowledge due to conflicting/outdated parametric memories. While locate-and-edit methods address this, their reliance on models' internal representations leads to robustness failures in long-context reasoning and paraphrased queries. We identify a fundamental limitation of locate-and-edit methods: existing semantic keys (for memory localization) cannot simultaneously satisfy robustness (context-invariant activation) and specificity (precise knowledge discrimination). Through theoretical error-bound analysis, we establish formal criteria for effective editing.
Our solution introduces \textit{Robust Edit Pathway (REP)}, a plug-and-play module that: (1) disentangles editing keys from native model representations; (2) dynamically adjusts keys via contrastive learning to achieve robustness-specificity balance. 
Extensive experiments across various editing methods (ROME/MEMIT/R-ROME/EMMET), existing LLMs (LLaMA2, QWen, Mistral), and datasets (CounterFact, ZsRE) show that REP improves success rate over robustness tests by up-to 66.4\% while maintaining the success rate unaffected.

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Bridging the Language Gaps in Large Language Models with Inference-Time Cross-Lingual Intervention

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