Austria

Inductive coding traditionally relies on labor-intensive human efforts, who are prone to inconsistencies and individual biases. Although large language models (LLMs) offer promising automation capabilities, their standalone use often results in inconsistent outputs, limiting their reliability. In this work, we propose a framework that combines ensemble methods with code refinement methodology to address these challenges. Our approach integrates multiple smaller LLMs, fine-tuned via Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA), and employs a moderator-based mechanism to simulate human consensus. To address the limitations of metrics like ROUGE and BERTScore, we introduce a composite evaluation metric that combines code conciseness and contextual similarity. The validity of this metric is confirmed through correlation analysis with human expert ratings. Results demonstrate that smaller ensemble models with refined outputs consistently outperform other ensembles, individual models, and even large-scale LLMs like GPT-4. Our evidence suggests that smaller ensemble models significantly outperform larger standalone language models, pointing out the risk of relying solely on a single large model for qualitative analysis.

ACL 2025

Measuring What Matters: Evaluating Ensemble LLMs with Label Refinement in Inductive Coding

llms

qualitative data analysis

computational social science

annotation

## Welcome to 2024 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics!
This year, the conference is in Mexico City. NAACL was actually already planned for Mexico City in 2021, but due to the pandemic the entire conference was moved online. This year, finally, we get to go! So it is my sincere pleasure to welcome you to Mexico City, whether in person or virtually. Having the conference in Mexico City is a good opportunity to emphasize that NAACL is our flagship conference for ACL members not only in North America but also in Central and South America, even though NAACL has been bearing “North” in its name. At this year’s conference, we have a theme to match, with a theme track on the Languages of Latin America to showcase the linguistic diversity of the region.
 
The opportunity to present at NAACL should not depend on a researcher’s travel budget, or their family status. This is why it is so important to make virtual participation at NAACL as good an experience as possible – but we want to also provide a good experience for in-person participants. As a community, we are still working out the best way to do that. This year at NAACL, we are trying out a big virtual poster session ahead of the conference, with the hope that this will make make for a lively and interactive experience. At the same time, we are reducing virtual oral presentations, which seem to be particularly tricky to make to work well. A big thanks to the NAACL program chairs and to Luciana Benotti for all their ideas and work to improve the virtual experience. And participants, virtual as well as in-person: Please let us know what worked for you and what didn’t, so we can continue to improve hybrid conferences. 
 
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Welcome and hope you all enjoy the conference! 
Katrin Erk 
The University of Texas at Austin 
NAACL-2024 General Chair 
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NAACL 2024

2024 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics

poster

### Welcome to The 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2025)

Message from the General Chair: 
*It is my great pleasure and honor to welcome you to the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2025), held in beautiful Vienna, Austria, from July 27 to August 1, 2025. ACL2025continues our field’s tradition of excellence in scholarship, innovation, and inclusivity, and I am deeply grateful to the many volunteers who have worked tirelessly to bring this event to life.* 
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Welcome to The 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2025)

Compound words (e.g. shower thought) provide a multifaceted challenge for diachronic models of semantic change. Datasets describing noun compound semantics tend to describe only the predominant sense of a compound, which is limiting, especially in diachronic settings where senses may shift over time. We create a novel dataset of relatedness judgements of noun compounds in English and German, the first to capture diachronic meaning changes for multi-word expressions without prematurely condensing individual senses into an aggregate value. Furthermore, we introduce a novel, sense-targeting approach for noun compounds that evaluates two contrasting vector representations in their ability to cluster example sentence pairs. Our clustering approach targets both noun compounds and their constituent parts, to model the interdependence of these terms over time. We calculate time-delineated distributions of these clusters and compare them against measures of semantic change aggregated from the human relatedness annotations.

Multi-word Measures: Modeling Semantic Change in Compound Nouns

Lexical Semantic Change (LSC) offers insights into cultural and social dynamics. Yet, the validity of methods for measuring kinds of LSC has yet to be established due to the absence of historical benchmark datasets. To address this gap, we develop a novel three-stage evaluation framework that involves: 1) creating a scalable, domain-general methodology for generating synthetic datasets that simulate theory-driven LSC across time, leveraging In-Context Learning and a lexical database; 2) using these datasets to evaluate the effectiveness of various methods; and 3) assessing their suitability for specific dimensions and domains. We apply this framework to simulate changes across key dimensions of LSC (SIB: Sentiment, Intensity, and Breadth) using examples from psychology, and evaluate the sensitivity of selected methods to detect these artificially induced changes. Our findings support the utility of the synthetic data approach, validate the efficacy of tailored methods for detecting synthetic changes in SIB, and reveal that a state-of-the-art LSC model faces challenges in detecting affective dimensions of LSC. This framework provides a valuable tool for dimension- and domain-specific benchmarking and evaluation of LSC methods, with particular benefits for the social sciences.

A General Framework to Evaluate Methods for Assessing Dimensions of Lexical Semantic Change Using LLM-Generated Synthetic Data

Measuring the generalization ability of Large Language Models (LLMs) is challenging due to data contamination. As models grow and computation becomes cheaper, ensuring tasks and test cases are unseen during training phases will become nearly impossible. We argue that knowledge-retrieval and reasoning tasks are not ideal for measuring generalization, as LLMs are not trained for specific tasks. Instead, we propose user behavior prediction, also a key aspect of personalization, as a theoretically sound, scalable, and robust alternative. We introduce a novel framework for this approach and test it on movie and music recommendation datasets for GPT-4o, GPT-4o-mini, and Llama-3.1-8B-Instruct. Results align with our framework’s predictions, showing GPT-4o outperforms GPT-4o-mini and Llama, though all models have much room for improvement, especially Llama.

User Behavior Prediction as a Generic, Robust, Scalable, and Low-Cost Evaluation Strategy for Estimating Generalization in LLMs

Large language models (LLMs) excel in high-resource languages but struggle with low-resource languages (LRLs), particularly those spoken by minority communities in China, such as Tibetan, Uyghur, Kazakh, and Mongolian. To systematically track the progress in these languages, we introduce MiLiC-Eval, a benchmark designed for minority languages in China, featuring 24K instances across 9 tasks. MiLiC-Eval focuses on underrepresented writing systems and provides a fine-grained assessment of linguistic and problem-solving skills. Our evaluation reveals that LLMs perform poorly on syntax-intensive tasks and multi-script languages. We further demonstrate how MiLiC-Eval can help advance LRL research in handling diverse writing systems and understanding the process of language adaptation.

MiLiC-Eval: Benchmarking Multilingual LLMs for China's Minority Languages

Training large language models (LLMs) to follow instructions has significantly enhanced their ability to tackle unseen tasks. However, despite their strong generalization capabilities, instruction-following LLMs encounter difficulties when dealing with tasks that require domain knowledge. This work introduces a specialized instruction fine-tuning for the domain of computational argumentation (CA). The goal is to enable an LLM to effectively tackle any unseen CA tasks while preserving its generalization capabilities. Reviewing existing CA research, we crafted natural language instructions for 105 CA tasks to this end. On this basis, we developed a CA-specific benchmark for LLMs that allows for a comprehensive evaluation of LLMs' capabilities in solving various CA tasks. We synthesized 52k CA-related instructions, adapting the self-instruct process to train a CA-specialized instruction-following LLM. Our experiments suggest that CA-specialized instruction fine-tuning significantly enhances the LLM on both seen and unseen CA tasks. At the same time, performance on the general NLP tasks of the SuperNI benchmark remains stable.

ArgInstruct: Specialized Instruction Fine-Tuning for Computational Argumentation

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown impressive moral reasoning abilities. Yet they often diverge when confronted with complex, multi-factor moral dilemmas. To address these discrepancies, we propose a framework that synthesizes multiple LLMs' moral judgments into a collectively formulated moral judgment, realigning models that deviate significantly from this consensus. Our aggregation mechanism fuses continuous moral acceptability scores (beyond binary labels) into a collective probability, weighting contributions by model reliability. For misaligned models, a targeted embedding-optimization procedure fine-tunes token embeddings for moral concepts, minimizing JS divergence to the consensus while preserving semantic integrity. Experiments on a large-scale social moral dilemma dataset show our approach builds robust consensus and improves individual model fidelity. These findings highlight the value of data-driven moral alignment across multiple models and its potential for safer, more consistent AI systems.

Probabilistic Aggregation and Targeted Embedding Optimization for Collective Moral Reasoning in Large Language Models

Large language models (LLMs) have exhibited remarkable versatility and adaptability, while their widespread adoption across various applications also raises critical safety concerns. This paper focuses on the impact of backdoored LLMs. Traditional backdoor injection methods are primarily limited to yes-or-no discriminative tasks, leading users to underestimate the potential risks of backdoored LLMs. Given the inherently generative nature of LLMs, this paper reveals that a generative backdoor injected into LLMs can expose the true safety risks in their application. We propose an editing-based generative backdoor, named MEGen, aiming to expand the backdoor to generative tasks in a unified format of any text-to any text, leading to natural generations with a specific intention. Experiments show that MEGen achieves a high attack success rate by adjusting only a small set of local parameters with few-shot samples. Notably, we show that the backdoored model, when triggered, can freely output pre-set dangerous information while completing downstream tasks. Our work highlights that MEGen enables backdoors in LLMs to exhibit generative capabilities, causing potential safety risks by altering the generative style.

MEGen: Generative Backdoor into Large Language Models via Model Editing

Complex multi-hop question answering requires large language models (LLMs) not only to retrieve external knowledge but also to reason over the retrieved information in order to arrive at the final solution. This involves two key challenges: (i) how to effectively explore the solution space and generate more potentially correct solution candidates, and (ii) how to select the optimal solution from multiple solution candidates, both of which require a training-free approach without introducing a more powerful teacher model. To address these challenges, we propose Retrieval-Augmented Monte Carlo Tree Self-Play with Reasoning Consistency (RASPberry), which introduces a more flexible action-level sampling granularity compared to existing methods, leverages Monte Carlo Tree Search for efficient solution space exploration, and utilizes an enhanced version of reasoning consistency to guide the selection of the optimal solution. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed RASPberry effectively tackles the two challenges outlined above, achieving more efficient RAG inference-time scaling. Our code is available at https://github.com/BaixuanLi/RASPberry.

RASPberry: Retrieval-Augmented Monte Carlo Tree Self-Play with Reasoning Consistency for Multi-Hop Question Answering

Correctly identifying characters and substrings of words should be a basic but essential ability of any Language Model that aims to proficiently understand and produce language. Despite so, the majority of Pre-trained Language Models (PLMs) are "character-blind" and struggle in spelling tasks, although they still seem to acquire some character knowledge during pre-training, a phenomenon dubbed Spelling Miracle. To shed light on this phenomenon, we systematically evaluate a range of PLMs with different parameter sizes using a controlled binary substring identification task. Through a series of experiments, we propose the first comprehensive investigation on where, when, and how a PLMs develop awareness of characters and substrings, with a particular linguistic focus on morphemic units such as prefixes, suffixes, and roots.

Beyond the Spelling Miracle: Investigating Substring Awareness in Character-Blind Language Models

Emotion Cause Triplet Extraction in Multimodal Conversations (MECTEC) has recently gained significant attention in social media analysis, aiming to extract emotion utterances, cause utterances, and emotion categories simultaneously. However, the scarcity of related datasets, with only one published dataset featuring highly uniform dialogue scenarios, hinders model development in this field. To address this, we introduce MECAD, the first multimodal, multi-scenario MECTEC dataset, comprising 989 conversations from 56 TV series spanning a wide range of dialogue contexts. In addition, existing MECTEC methods fail to explicitly model emotional and causal contexts and neglect the fusion of semantic information at different levels, leading to performance degradation. In this paper, we propose M3HG, a novel model that explicitly captures emotional and causal contexts and effectively fuses contextual information at both inter- and intra-utterance levels via a multimodal heterogeneous graph. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of M3HG compared with existing state-of-the-art methods. Codes are available at https://anonymous.4open.science/r/M3HG-6B34.

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Multi-word Measures: Modeling Semantic Change in Compound Nouns

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