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In Hierarchical Task Network (HTN) planning, compound tasks need to be refined into executable (primitive) action sequences. In contrast to their primitive counterparts, compound tasks do not specify preconditions or effects. Thus, their implications on the states in which they are applied are not explicitly known: they are &quot;hidden&quot; in and depending on the decomposition structure. We formalize several kinds of preconditions and effects that can be inferred for compound tasks in totally ordered HTN domains. As relevant special case we introduce a problem relaxation which admits reasoning about preconditions and effects in polynomial time. We provide procedures for doing so, thereby extending previous work, which could only deal with acyclic models. We prove our procedures to be correct and complete for any totally ordered input domain. These results are embedded into an encompassing complexity analysis of the inference of preconditions and effects of compound tasks, an investigation that has not been made so far.

AAAI 2021

Revealing Hidden Preconditions and Effects of Compound HTN Planning Tasks – A Complexity Analysis

The purpose of the AAAI conference is to promote research in artificial intelligence (AI) and scientific exchange among AI researchers, practitioners, scientists, and engineers in affiliated disciplines. 

In Hierarchical Task Network (HTN) planning, compound tasks need to be refined into executable (primitive) action sequences. In contrast to their primitive counterparts, compound tasks do not specify preconditions or effects. Thus, their implications on the states in which they are applied are not explicitly known: they are "hidden" in and depending on the decomposition structure. We formalize several kinds of preconditions and effects that can be inferred for compound tasks in totally ordered HTN domains. As relevant special case we introduce a problem relaxation which admits reasoning about preconditions and effects in polynomial time. We provide procedures for doing so, thereby extending previous work, which could only deal with acyclic models. We prove our procedures to be correct and complete for any totally ordered input domain. These results are embedded into an encompassing complexity analysis of the inference of preconditions and effects of compound tasks, an investigation that has not been made so far.

technical paper

Robust Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) are a powerful framework for modeling sequential decision making problems with model uncertainty. This paper proposes the first first-order framework for solving robust MDPs. Our algorithm interleaves primal-dual first-order updates with approximate Value Iteration updates. By carefully controlling the tradeoff between the accuracy and cost of Value Iteration updates, we achieve an ergodic convergence rate that is significantly better than classical Value Iteration algorithms in terms of the number of states S and the number of actions A on ellipsoidal and Kullback-Leibler s-rectangular uncertainty sets. In numerical experiments on ellipsoidal uncertainty sets we show that our algorithm is significantly more scalable than state-of-the-art approaches. Our framework is also the first one to solve robust MDPs with s-rectangular KL uncertainty sets.

Scalable First-Order Methods for Robust MDPs

As a technology ML is oblivious to societal good or bad, and thus, the field of fair machine learning has stepped up to propose multiple mathematical definitions, algorithms, and systems to ensure different notions of fairness in ML applications. Given the multitude of propositions, it has become imperative to formally verify the fairness metrics satisfied by different algorithms on different datasets. In this paper, we propose a stochastic satisfiability (SSAT) framework, Justicia, that formally verifies different fairness measures of supervised learning algorithms with respect to the underlying data distribution. We instantiate Justicia on multiple classification and bias mitigation algorithms, and datasets to verify different fairness metrics, such as disparate impact, statistical parity, and equalized odds. Justicia is scalable, accurate, and operates on non-Boolean and compound sensitive attributes unlike existing distribution-based verifiers, such as FairSquare and VeriFair. Being distribution-based by design, Justicia is more robust than the verifiers, such as AIF360, that operate on specific test samples. We also theoretically bound the finite-sample error of the verified fairness measure.

Justicia: A Stochastic SAT Approach to Formally Verify Fairness

We propose a novel distance-based regularization method for deep metric learning called Multi-level Distance Regularization (MDR). 
MDR explicitly disturbs a learning procedure by regularizing pairwise distances between embedding vectors into multiple levels that represents a degree of similarity between a pair. 
In the training stage, the model is trained with both MDR and an existing loss function of deep metric learning, simultaneously; the two losses interfere with the objective of each other, and it makes the learning process difficult. 
Moreover, MDR prevents some examples from being ignored or overly influenced in the learning process.
These allow the parameters of the embedding network to be settle on a local optima with better generalization.
Without bells and whistles, MDR with simple Triplet loss achieves the-state-of-the-art performance in various benchmark datasets: CUB-200-2011, Cars-196, Stanford Online Products, and In-Shop Clothes Retrieval.
We extensively perform ablation studies on its behaviors to show the effectiveness of MDR.
By easily adopting our MDR, the previous approaches can be improved in performance and generalization ability.

Multi-Level Distance Regularization for Deep Metric Learning

Advances in NLP have yielded impressive results for the task of machine reading comprehension (MRC), with approaches having been reported to achieve performance comparable to that of humans. In this paper, we investigate whether state-of-the-art MRC models are able to correctly process Semantics Altering Modifications (SAM): linguistically-motivated phenomena that alter the semantics of a sentence while preserving most of its lexical surface form. We present a method to automatically generate and align challenge sets featuring original and altered examples. We further propose a novel evaluation methodology to correctly assess the capability of MRC systems to process these examples independent of the data they were optimised on, by discounting for effects introduced by domain shift. In a large-scale empirical study, we apply the methodology in order to evaluate extractive MRC models with regard to their capability to correctly process SAM-enriched data. We comprehensively cover 12 different state-of-the-art neural architecture configurations and four training datasets and find that -- despite their well-known remarkable performance -- optimised models consistently struggle to correctly process semantically altered data.

Semantics Altering Modifications for Evaluating Comprehension in Machine Reading

Voice Assistants such as Alexa, Siri, and Google Assistant typically use a two-stage Spoken Language Understanding pipeline; first, an Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) component to process customer speech and generate text transcriptions, followed by a Natural Language Understanding (NLU) component to map transcriptions to an actionable hypothesis. An end-to-end (E2E) system that goes directly from speech to a hypothesis is a more attractive option. These systems were shown to be smaller, faster, and better optimized. However, they require massive amounts of end-to-end training data and in addition, don't take advantage of the already available ASR and NLU training data.

In this work, we propose an E2E system that is designed to jointly train on multiple speech-to-text tasks, such as ASR (speech-transcription) and SLU (speech-hypothesis), and text-to-text tasks, such as NLU (text-hypothesis). We call this the Audio-Text All-Task (AT-AT) Model and we show that it beats the performance of E2E models trained on individual tasks, especially ones trained on limited data. We show this result on an internal music dataset and two public datasets, FluentSpeech and SNIPS Audio, where we achieve state-of-the-art results. Since our model can process both speech and text input sequences and learn to predict a target sequence, it also allows us to do zero-shot E2E SLU by training on only text-hypothesis data (without any speech) from a new domain. We evaluate this ability of our model on the Facebook TOP dataset and set a new benchmark for zeroshot E2E performance. We release the audio data collected for the TOP dataset for future research.

Exploring Transfer Learning for End-to-End Spoken Language Understanding

The paper discusses theoretical foundations that  describe principles and processes involved in defining semantics that deal with similarity  between arguments. 	
Such semantics compute the strength of an argument on the basis of the strengths of its attackers, similarities between those attackers, and an initial weight ascribed to the argument. 

We define a semantics by three functions: an adjustment function that updates the strengths of attackers on the basis of their similarities, an aggregation function that computes the strength of the group of attackers,  
and an influence function that evaluates the impact of the group on the argument's initial weight. 
We propose intuitive constraints for the three functions and key rationality principles for semantics, and show how the former lead to the satisfaction of the latter. Then, we propose a broad family of semantics whose instances satisfy the principles. 
Finally, we analyse the existing adjustment functions and show that they violate some properties, then we propose novel ones and use them for generalizing h-Categorizer.

A General Setting for Gradual Semantics Dealing with Similarity

We introduce and formalize a concept of a maintenance commitment, a kind of social commitment characterized by states whose truthhood an agent commits to maintain. This concept of maintenance commitments enables us to capture a richer variety of real-world scenarios than possible using achievement commitments with a temporal condition.  By developing a rule-based operational semantics, we study the relationship between agents' achievement and maintenance goals, achievement commitments, and maintenance commitments. We motivate a notion of coherence which captures alignment between an agents' achievement and maintenance cognitive and social constructs, and prove that, under specified conditions, the goals and commitments of both rational agents individually and of a multiagent system are coherent.

Maintenance of Social Commitments in Multiagent Systems

Knowledge distillation is an effective tool to compress large pre-trained convolutional neural networks (CNNs) or their ensembles into models applicable to mobile and embedded devices. However, with expected flops or latency, existing methods are hand-crafted heuristics. They propose to pre-define the target student network for knowledge distillation, which may be sub-optimal because it requires much effort to explore a powerful student from the large design space. In this paper, we develop a novel teacher guided neural architecture search method to directly search for a student network with flexible channel and layer sizes. Specifically, we define the search space as the number of the channels/layers, which is sampled based on the probability distribution and is learned by minimizing the search objective of the student network. The maximum probability for the size in each distribution serves as the final searched width and depth of the target student network. Extensive experiments on a variety of face recognition benchmarks have demonstrated the superiority of our method over the state-of-the-art alternatives.

Teacher Guided Neural Architecture Search for Face Recognition

Benefiting from the development of generative adversarial networks (GAN), facial manipulation has achieved significant progress in both academia and industry recently. It inspires an increasing number of entertainment applications but also incurs severe threats to individual privacy and even political security meanwhile. To mitigate such risks, many countermeasures have been proposed. However, the great majority methods are designed in a passive manner, which is to detect whether the facial images or videos are tampered after their wide propagation. These detection-based methods have a fatal limitation, that is, they only work for ex-post forensics but can not prevent the engendering of malicious behavior.

To address the limitation, in this paper, we propose a novel framework of initiative defense to degrade the performance of facial manipulation models controlled by malicious users. The basic idea is to actively inject imperceptible venom into target facial data before manipulation. To this end, we first imitate the target manipulation model with a surrogate model, and then devise a poison perturbation generator to obtain the desired venom. An alternating training strategy are further leveraged to train both the surrogate model and the perturbation generator. Two typical facial manipulation tasks: face attribute editing and face reenactment, are considered in our initiative defense framework. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of our framework in different settings. Finally, we hope this work can shed some light on initiative countermeasures against more adversarial scenarios.

Initiative Defense against Facial Manipulation

This paper presents a new high-quality dataset for Very Important Person Localization (VIPLoc), named Unconstrained-7k. Generally, current datasets: 1) are limited in scale; 2) built under simple and constrained conditions, where the number of disturbing non-VIPs is not large, the scene is relatively simple, and the face of VIP is always in frontal view and salient. To tackle these problems, the proposed Unconstrained-7k dataset is featured in two aspects. First, it contains over 7,000 annotated images, making it the largest VIPLoc dataset 
under unconstrained conditions to date. Second, our dataset is collected freely on the Internet, including multiple scenes, where images are in unconstrained conditions. VIPs in the new dataset are in different settings, e.g., large view variation, varying sizes, occluded, and complex scenes. Meanwhile, each image has more persons (> 20), making the dataset more challenging.

As a minor contribution, motivated by the observation that VIPs are highly related to not only neighbors but also iconic objects, this paper proposes a Joint Social Relation and Individual Interaction Graph Neural Networks (JSRII-GNN) for VIPLoc. Experiments show that the JSRII-GNN yields competitive accuracy on NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association), MS (Multi-scene), and Unconstrained-7k datasets. https://github.com/xiaowang1516/VIPLoc.

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