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Anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) is a ubiquitous and versatile probe of magnetic order in contemporary spintronics research [1]. It arises from the dependence of the resistance of a magnetically ordered solid on the relative angle between the applied electric field and the magnetization vector independent of their polarity. The origins of the AMR are usually ascribed to extrinsic effects (i.e. spin-dependent electron scattering), whereas intrinsic (i.e. scattering-independent) contributions are neglected [2].&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;Here, we perform a broadband measurement of the AMR of prototypical ferromagnets such as Co, Ni or NiFe alloys in a frequency range from DC to 28 THz [3]. The large bandwidth covers the regimes of both diffusive and ballistic intraband electron transport and, thus, allows us to separate extrinsic and intrinsic AMR components. Analysis of the THz response based on Boltzmann transport theory reveals that the AMR of the Ni and NiFe alloys is of predominantly extrinsic nature. However, the Co thin film exhibits a sizeable intrinsic, frequency-independent AMR contribution, which amounts to more than 2/3 of the DC AMR contrast of 1%. These features are attributed to the lower symmetry of the hexagonal structure of Co crystallites which allows for larger anisotropies in their bandstructure. The new insight into the nature of AMR is not only relevant for the fundamental understanding of the magnetotransport but might also advance the ultrafast probing techniques in spintronic devices.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/b939fa383f615a86b5ac200134a15b4d.jpg)

Fig. 1. THz detection of the AMR. The incident THz pulse applies transient electric field in the direction of polarization, in which, as a consequence of the AMR, the electrical resistance and the transmission of the THz pulse depend on the angle of the magnetization. Variations in transmitted amplitude allow us to calculate the AMR contrast.


![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/584dca932356943c776e64e9fc76bbd6.jpg)

Fig. 2. Spectral composition of the AMR in different metals. (a) The absolute value of the AMR contrast in permalloy versus frequency is well described within the Drude formalism (curve) assuming only magnetization-dependent electron scattering rates. (b) The same measurement for a cobalt sample shows a scalable frequency-independent offset which witnesses the intrinsic contribution to the AMR.

2022 Joint MMM-INTERMAG

Broadband terahertz spectroscopy of anisotropic magnetoresistance reveals intrinsic contributions

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Anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) is a ubiquitous and versatile probe of magnetic order in contemporary spintronics research [1]. It arises from the dependence of the resistance of a magnetically ordered solid on the relative angle between the applied electric field and the magnetization vector independent of their polarity. The origins of the AMR are usually ascribed to extrinsic effects (i.e. spin-dependent electron scattering), whereas intrinsic (i.e. scattering-independent) contributions are neglected [2]. Here, we perform a broadband measurement of the AMR of prototypical ferromagnets such as Co, Ni or NiFe alloys in a frequency range from DC to 28 THz [3]. The large bandwidth covers the regimes of both diffusive and ballistic intraband electron transport and, thus, allows us to separate extrinsic and intrinsic AMR components. Analysis of the THz response based on Boltzmann transport theory reveals that the AMR of the Ni and NiFe alloys is of predominantly extrinsic nature. However, the Co thin film exhibits a sizeable intrinsic, frequency-independent AMR contribution, which amounts to more than 2/3 of the DC AMR contrast of 1%. These features are attributed to the lower symmetry of the hexagonal structure of Co crystallites which allows for larger anisotropies in their bandstructure. The new insight into the nature of AMR is not only relevant for the fundamental understanding of the magnetotransport but might also advance the ultrafast probing techniques in spintronic devices.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/b939fa383f615a86b5ac200134a15b4d.jpg)

Fig. 1. THz detection of the AMR. The incident THz pulse applies transient electric field in the direction of polarization, in which, as a consequence of the AMR, the electrical resistance and the transmission of the THz pulse depend on the angle of the magnetization. Variations in transmitted amplitude allow us to calculate the AMR contrast.


![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/584dca932356943c776e64e9fc76bbd6.jpg)

Fig. 2. Spectral composition of the AMR in different metals. (a) The absolute value of the AMR contrast in permalloy versus frequency is well described within the Drude formalism (curve) assuming only magnetization-dependent electron scattering rates. (b) The same measurement for a cobalt sample shows a scalable frequency-independent offset which witnesses the intrinsic contribution to the AMR.

technical paper

The 15th Joint MMM-INTERMAG Conference (2022 Joint) is sponsored jointly by AIP Publishing and the IEEE Magnetics Society. Members of the international scientific and engineering communities interested in recent developments in fundamental and applied magnetism are invited to attend and contribute to the technical sessions. The technical program will include invited and contributed papers in oral and poster sessions, invited symposia, a plenary session, and an evening session, with about 1500 presentations overall. This Conference provides an outstanding opportunity for worldwide participants to meet their colleagues and collaborators and discuss developments in all areas of magnetism research.

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Skyrmions are excellent candidates for racetrack memory and synaptic devices1,2. However, their movement in ferromagnets (FM) is hindered by their transverse movement (skyrmions Hall effect, SkHE) and pinning at defects3. Ferrimagnetic (FiM) systems are proposed to overcome the transverse movement, while amorphous ferromagnets systems such as CoFeB have already shown significant reduction in pinning4,5 but yield skyrmions with larger diameters. Therefore, we propose a robust amorphous-ferrimagnetic system to bring forth the best of the two. So far, skyrmions have been generated in amorphous ferrimagnetic systems such as Pt/GdFeCo/MgO5 and Pt/CoGd/TaO6 where SkHE and pinning were considerably mitigated. However, these systems lack a certain robustness owing to the rapidly diminishing DMI at the FiM/Heavy metal (HM) interface with increase in rare-earth (RE) content. This hinders the concurrent attainment of small size, desired density, room temperature (RT) stability and high–mobility in skyrmions. To overcome this we followed a strategy previously used to generate dense, small skyrmions in FM7- employing two DMI generating interfaces of Ir/Fe-FiM and Co-FiM/Pt. The two DMIs at the interfaces being additive, strengthens the total DMI and provides a robust, tunable FiM system capable of addressing the above-mentioned challenges. Figure 1 shows the schematic, hysteresis loops and MFM images of a few of these multilayers. By tuning the rare-earth/3d transition magnetic material ratio and thicknesses in both the FiM layers, along with systematic change in the Tb/Gd ratio (tunes anisotropy) we were able to achieve a robust multilayer FiM system, with small (~50 nm), high-density skyrmions, and up to 88% reduction in the necessary energy to nucleate them. For instance, in 1c we show a considerably high-density of skyrmions, around ~72 nm in diameter, while the magnetization and nucleation fields are reduced by 70% and 88% respectively. Our multilayer system serves as a suitable template for designing desired skyrmion densities, sizes and reduced SkHE along with lower energy requirements for nucleation and possibly movement.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/5bae4b2d492d8e480f3947ee0e9a336e.jpg)

Figure 1: Schematic, hysteresis loops, MFM (same scale in all images) of a) FM and b)-c) FiM

Robust and tunable rare-earth ferrimagnetic systems for dense, small and high-mobility skyrmions at room temperature

Skyrmions and antiskyrmions are topologically protected spin structures with opposite vorticities. Particularly in coexisting phases, these two types of magnetic quasiparticles may show fascinating physics and potential for spintronic devices. While skyrmions are observed in a wide range of materials until now antiskyrmions were exclusive to materials with D2d symmetry [1]. In our recent work, we have shown first and second-order antiskyrmions stabilized by magnetic dipole-dipole interaction in Fe/Gd-based multilayers [2]. Using Lorentz transmission electron microscopy imaging, we observed coexisting first and second-order antiskyrmions, Bloch skyrmions, and type-2 bubbles (Fig. 1) and determine the range of material properties and magnetic fields where the different spin objects form and dissipate. Phase diagrams of the spin objects were created in dependence on the magnetic out-of-plane field, temperature, saturation magnetization, and uniaxial magnetic anisotropy. We performed micromagnetic simulations to obtain more insight into the studied system and conclude that low values of saturation magnetization and uniaxial magnetic anisotropy lead to the existence of this zoo of different spin objects and that they are primarily stabilized by dipole-dipole interaction. Further, we investigated the nucleation process of antiskyrmions experimentally and theoretically revealing the necessity of a crossing point of three magnetic stripe domains to form an isolated antiskyrmion with an out-of-plane magnetic field. The previous unobserved second-order antiskyrmions and the disclosed coexistence of antiskyrmions and skyrmions potentially reachable for a whole range of different materials provide great potential for further studies on quasi-particle interactions, spin dynamics as well as for possible future applications in spintronics.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/50c16dd6974021e442524cdd7ed4e0a3.jpg)

Fig. 1. Underfocused LTEM image of [Fe/Ir/Gd]2/[Fe/Gd]76/[Fe/Ir/Gd]2 showing five different coexisting spin objects (a). Bloch skyrmion with counter- (b) and with clockwise rotation (c), type-2 bubble (d), first-order antiskyrmion (e), and second-order antiskyrmion (f). Zoomed-in spin objects (b-f, I) and simulated LTEM contrast (b-f, II) caused by the theoretical spin textures (b-f, III).

Dipolar-Stabilized First and Second-Order Antiskyrmions in Ferrimagnetic Multilayers

It has been predicted and measured that topologically non-trivial magnetisations can provide an extra contribution to the Hall resistivity (Rxy), called the topological Hall effect (THE)1. Skyrmions have a topology defined by the winding number, S, which takes an integer value dependent upon the number of total ‘twists’ in their magnetisation. The THE has been shown to be present in many B20 materials with bulk Dzyaloshinkii-Moriya Interaction (DMI) hosting skyrmions but the picture is less clear for multilayers with interfacial DMI. Observations by Maccariello et al. saw resistivity effects that could be accounted for by only the ordinary and anomalous Hall effects (OHE & AHE)2. In contrast, work by Zeissler et al. saw an extra contribution beyond the OHE and AHE that was larger than the THE predicted by theory3. In this work, Hall transport measurements combined with imaging of the magnetic texture were used to identify such contributions to understand discrepancies between the predicted1, and observed2,3, magnitudes of the topological contribution. Measurements of Rxy(B) were performed in [Pt|CoB|Ir]xN multilayers with different repeat numbers, N, over a range of temperatures from 290 K to 2 K. Figure 1 shows the temperature dependence of the anomalous Hall resistivity at saturation, ρA, with an increase in size at T &lt; 20 K, for a sample with N=4. The Rxy measurements for the same sample were analysed in combination with SQUIDVSM magnetometry data to produce Figure 2. The maximum excess Hall resistivity, ρexcess, is observed to increase with temperature and cannot be accounted for by the ordinary and anomalous Hall effects alone. This implies an extra Hall effect that may be topological in nature suggesting that the maximum density of topological magnetisation textures increases with temperature.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/1a86da2275fb423bada15ee48b4609a9.jpg)

Fig. 1 Anomalous Hall resistivity at saturation, ρA, vs T showing an increase in size for T < 20 K, in samples of Ta|Pt|[CoB|Ir|Pt]x4 Pt multilayers.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/d834fd8cf6941127ea0fd52e6ae23c9a.jpg)

Fig. 2 Excess Hall resistivity (possibly topological in nature) that cannot be accounted for by ordinary or anomalous Hall effects, ρexcess, vs T, showing an increase in the height of the maximum peak as temperature increases.

Observation of Increasing Topological Hall Resistivity with Temperature in Skyrmion Hosting Magnetic Multilayers with [Pt|CoB|Ir]xN Structure

The real-space Berry phase associated with conduction carriers has recently attracted much attention from the viewpoints of fundamental science and spin-electronics applications. The noncoplanar spin textures responsible for the Berry phase usually appear during the magnetization reversal, often occur in systems with Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interactions (DMI) due to, broken inversion symmetry, and yield skyrmions in specific temperature and magnetic-field ranges [1, 2]. One key aim in skyrmion research is to realize small feature sizes, which lead to a pronounced topological Hall effect (THE), at high temperatures. Confined geometries such as nanoparticles or clusters are potential systems for this purpose because the competing exchange and magnetocrystalline anisotropy of nanoparticles are expected to cause substantially noncoplanar noncollinear spin structures even in the absence of DMI. Here, we use experiments and micromagnetic simulations to investigate spin textures in exchange-coupled Co nanoclusters produced by inert-gas condensation-type cluster deposition. The nanoclusters have an average size of 14 nm and exhibit a significant topological Hall effect (THE), as shown in the experimental Hall data of Fig. 1(a). The micromagnetic THE simulations, Fig. 1(b), predict the skyrmion number Q by integration over the skyrmion density and are in good agreement with the experimental data. THE is caused by the noncoplanar noncollinear spin structure of the Co nanoclusters, visualized in Fig. 1(c). A characteristic feature of both experimental THE and theoretical prediction (skyrmion number Q) is a drastic change over a relatively small field range, which we interpret as a topological phase transition analogous to the Lifshitz transition in metals. This work is supported by NSF-DMREF (No. 1729288), NSF-EQUATE (OIA-2044049), the NU Collaborative Initiative, and NCMN,

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/1dc29675931a0b1064caa936e9c420a1.jpg)

Fig. 1. Topological Hall effect (THE) in Co nanoclusters: (a) measured THE at 300 K and 10 K, (b) calculated Q as a function magnetic field and (c) simulated spin structure. The insets in (b) show the simulated spin textures at different fields. Red and blue colors represent spin-up and spin-down magnetization directions, respectively.

Hall Effect and Topological Phase Transition in Exchange-Coupled Nanomagnets

Magnetic skyrmions are a prime example of topologically non-trivial spin textures observed in a variety of magnetic materials. They emerge when the exchange and anisotropy energies promoting parallel alignment of spins in a ferromagnet enter in competition with energies favoring non-collinear alignment of spins such as the Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction (DMI), the long-range dipolar interaction or higher-order exchange interactions. The orthodox theory of skyrmions in ultrathin ferromagnetic layers with interfacial DMI relies on a model that accounts for the dipolar interaction through an effective anisotropy term, neglecting long-range effects. At the same time, in single ferromagnetic layers with interfacial DMI, large chiral skyrmions, also called skyrmionic bubbles have been observed, suggesting a non-trivial interplay between DMI and long-range dipolar effects[1]. The competition between these two energies also leads to the formation of skyrmions exhibiting spin rotations with intermediate angles between Neel and Bloch, a phenomenon also present in domain walls. In addition, there is a growing body of theoretical evidence that points to a need to take into account the long-range dipolar energy in the models describing magnetic skyrmions. The above considerations put into question the validity of the commonly used assumption that the long-range contribution of the dipolar interaction is negligible. Here we use rigorous mathematical analysis to develop a skyrmion theory that takes into account the full dipolar energy in the thin film regime and provides analytical formulas for compact skyrmion radius, rotation angle and energy[2,3]. We demonstrate that the DMI threshold at which a compact skyrmion loses its Néel character is a factor of 3 higher than that for a single domain wall. A reorientation of the skyrmion rotation angle from Néel to intermediate Néel-Bloch angles is predicted as the layer thickness is increased in the low DMI regime, which is confirmed by micromagnetic simulations. We will also present an extension of our model which includes applied magnetic field.

Theory of Néel-Bloch transition for compact magnetic skyrmions

In nanomagnetism and spintronics, magnetic multilayers continue to thrive as pivotal structures to engineer complex non-trivial spin textures thanks to the tunability of their composition and their properties. Two-dimensional magnetic textures such as skyrmions or chiral domain walls were mostly under focus for the last decade, but recently interest has surged for more complex objects which display an inhomogeneous behavior over the vertical dimension [1,2]. Interesting examples include bobbers which could become remarkable assets for the development of logic devices [3] or the recently observed hopfions [4] or even different skyrmions phases [5]. Our own efforts to engineer and explore three-dimensional textures in Pt/Co based multilayers allows us to observe the signature of new textures, which we name skyrmionic cocoons. At low magnetic field, they resemble tubular skyrmions but upon an increase of the out-of-plane field, they shrink and disappear in the outer layers (Fig 1.b,c), becoming elongated ellipsoids. To observe such textures, we grew multilayers displaying variable thicknesses of a ferromagnetic material, thereby introducing a non-uniform effective anisotropy. By carefully tuning the thickness of each magnetic layer, it was possible to observe in a single sample two distinct types of objects, as shown by the strong difference in the Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) contrasts (Fig 1.a). With the support of micromagnetic simulations (Fig 1.b), we identify them as two vertically coupled cocoons (large contrast) and single cocoons only present in half of the layers (weak contrast). The existence and field-dependent behavior of such textures could represent interesting possibilities for potential applications.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/e2c9cf21f889d9f4fd7c83a4aa3ac691.jpg)

Fig 1. a) MFM measurement at 265 mT on a multilayer with variable thickness of Co. b) Corresponding micromagnetic simulations at different fields displayed with isosurfaces, mz=0 (white) and mz=-0.8 (red), with plane cuts identified by the coloured lines. The yellow dotted ellipses evidence the two kinds of objects correlated with the MFM image: coupled cocoons (left) and single cocoons (right). c) Simulated vertical cuts showing the evolution of a cocoon at different out-of-plane magnetic fields.

Non-Collinear Three-Dimensional Textures In Magnetic Multilayers: Hatching of Skyrmionic Cocoons

Antisymmetric exchange interactions are used to stabilize magnetic textures and lead to non-reciprocal spin-wave propagation [1-2]. As a result, left and right propagating waves at the same energy have different wavelengths. Thus, interference between counter-propagating spin waves does not lead to standing waves; instead, confined modes have a time-dependent phase, i.e., their phase is modulated at a rate determined by the Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interactions (DMI) [3]. We report on a Brillouin light scattering (BLS) study of confined spin waves in Co/Pt nanowires with strong DMI, whose widths range from 100 to 400 nm [4]. Two different scattering geometries were used: a transverse geometry where the incident light is perpendicular to the nanowire, as illustrated in Fig. 1(a), and a longitudinal geometry, where the incident light is parallel to the nanowire. Fig. 1(b) shows a SEM image of a nanowire array. Fig. 2(a-d) show sample BLS spectra for both scattering geometries. Fig. 2(e) shows spin-wave quantization in narrow (&lt;200nm width) wires dramatically reduces the frequency shift between BLS Stokes and anti-Stokes lines in the transverse geometry. In contrast, the frequency shift associated with the longitudinal geometry is independent of nanowire width. A model that considers phase-modulated confined modes captures this physics and predicts a dramatic reduction in frequency shift of light scattered from higher energy spin waves in narrow wires, which is confirmed by our experiments. Our results show that, in contrast to the BLS frequency shift in the longitudinal scattering geometry, which enables direct determination of the DMI, the BLS frequency shift in the transverse scattering geometry is not directly related to the DMI.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/bacdbe811474e59401429bb719b9e203.jpg)

Fig. 1 (a) Schematic of spin waves in a confined geometry with chiral magnetic interactions. (b) A SEM image of the nanowire array consisting of 100 nm width Co/Pt nanowires with 100 nm spacing.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/385e357996864555747b01fc03369e04.jpg)

Fig. 2 (a)-(d) BLS spectra for Stokes and anti-Stokes processes for both positive and negative fields on nanowire arrays with different widths. (e) The absolute value of the frequency shift on nanowire arrays with different widths in the longitudinal (k∥L) and transverse (k⊥L) scattering geometries.

Brillouin Light Scattering from Quantized Spin Waves in Nanowires with Antisymmetric Exchange Interactions

Skyrmions exhibit topologically nontrivial spin textures [1] and can be motioned by comparably small spin-polarized currents [2]. This renders them promising for the use as information carriers in future magnetic data storage and processing technologies, referred to as Skyrmionics. To better understand the physics of Skyrmions, a detailed knowledge of the real space magnetic structure of these spin solitons is mandatory. We have therefore studied the 3D magnetic textures of Skyrmion tubes (SkTs) using in-line and off-axis electron holography (EH). While the orientation of the in-plane magnetic induction B obtained from a Fe0.95Co0.05Ge nanoplate using in-line EH shows the expected hexagonal vortex-like pattern (Fig. 1), a thorough quantitative analysis implies that the underlying 3D texture deviates from that of homogeneously extended Bloch Skyrmions [3]. Low temperature holographic vector field electron tomography (VFET [4]) in an external magnetic field was therefore used to quantitatively reconstruct the full 3D magnetic texture of SkTs in an FeGe needle [5]. The resulting high-resolution 3D magnetic images (Fig. 2) reveal various previously unseen details of the SkTs. Our findings include the occurrence of local deviations from a homogeneous Bloch character within the tubes. They highlight the collapse of the Skyrmion texture upon approaching the surfaces of the needle, provide evidence for the coexistence of longitudinal and transverse Skyrmion textures, and reveal an axial modulation of the SkTs that is found to be strongly correlated among neighboring tubes in the needle. Based on the quantitative 3D magnetic induction data, we have calculated spatially resolved energy density maps across the SkTs that provide experimental evidence for the energetic stabilization of these magnetic solitons through an energy gain due to the Dzyaloshinskii-Moryia interaction, which overcompensates the exchange energy in the tube centers.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/95d4498ede230bdf211fb866fabb1ce2.jpg)

Orientation map of the projected in-plane component of the magnetic induction in the hexagonal Skyrmion lattice of a Fe0.95Co0.05Ge nanoplate.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/a445af1acb5f54ffe8123e81a66772df.jpg)

Morphology of an FeGe needle (left) and direction of the 3D magnetic induction B (right) as determined from holographic VFET experiments.

Unravelling the details of the magnetic texture of skyrmion tubes in three dimensions

Focused ion beam (FIB) irradiation is a versatile means to tune magnetic thin films on the nanoscale [1]. Ion irradiation can create nucleation sites for Skyrmions [2] and even establish Skyrmion-tracks [3]. In this work, we present statistical data of Skyrmion motion driven by 50 ns long current pulses in a sputtered W/CoFeB/MgO trilayer. In this layers a Skyrmion phase can be stabilized by a an oop-field in the low single digit mT regime. Furthermore, we elaborate on how Skyrmion motion can be tuned and directed by non-destructive Ga+ Ion irradiation with ultra-low doses (&lt;1e13 Ions/cm2) and high dose resolution of &lt; 1e12 Ions/cm2. First, we will give an overview of how the magnetic properties of the thin film are affected by ion irradiation. Here we analyze the average domain size, film coercivity (Hc) and relative decrease of saturation magnetization (Ms) and effective magnetization (Meff), over different irradiation steps and compare this data to stepwise annealing of the samples. Next, we track the motion of at least 50 Skyrmions for various current densities in magnetic wires, utilizing widefield magneto-optical measurements, as depicted in Figure 1. Hereby half of the wire is treated with Ga+ ions. We show that ion irradiation can be used to adjust the motion of Skyrmions towards lower velocities. While the Skyrmion velocity is very similar in the pristine parts of the wires, the velocity in the irradiated region is heavily dependent on the ion dose (see Figure 2). This lower velocity is accompanied by a significantly reduced Skyrmion Hall angle in the irradiated part, which leads to a nearly straight motion in the direction of the current flow. Beyond that, also stochastical motion due to thermal effects is largely supressed in the irradiated parts.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/bb1f0be62208fad403370b509e76634d.jpg)

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/82950f12d80d3940195e22e18676c0c9.jpg)

Influence of Ga+ Ion Irradiation on Skyrmion Motion

Influence of Ga+ Ion Irradiation on Skyrmion Motion

Skyrmions are topologically protected chiral spin textures that have shown promise as data carriers in future spintronic applications. They can be stabilized by the interfacial Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction (iDMI) in material systems with inversion asymmetry and spin-orbit coupling, such as Ir/Co/Pt multilayers [1]. The ability to locally (at the nanoscale) tune such interface interactions, and hence the skyrmion energy, could lead to novel ways to optimise the nucleation and control of skyrmions. In this contribution we investigate the local tuning of the iDMI and the perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA) using Ga+ ion irradiation, as well as its effect on skyrmion nucleation. Ga+ ion irradiation affects the coordination of atoms at the interfaces (Fig. 1a), which is expected to decrease both PMA and iDMI [2]. From Fig. 1b, we find that the reduction in PMA and iDMI are correlated, suggesting that both effects depend similarly on the interface quality. This reduces the energy cost of domain walls but does not affect their chirality. Hence, we expect that this will also facilitate the nucleation of more complicated chiral textures, such as skyrmions. To confirm this, we studied for the first time the current driven nucleation of skyrmions [3] in identical devices with and without Ga+ ion irradiation. We find that the ion irradiation indeed affects skyrmion nucleation, see Fig. 2. The critical current density required for nucleation is reduced by almost 30% and the number of skyrmions is doubled by irradiation. Thus, we argue that ion irradiation can be used to facilitate and control the nucleation of skyrmions in novel devices.

![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/3e984d72283a4626aa9f30b40e9bb2d9.jpg)

Fig. 1 a) Illustration: Ion irradiation causes intermixing at interfaces (left to right). b) Plot of the strength of the iDMI Ds against the strength of the interface PMA Ks, both Ds and Ks decrease when the Ga+ dose is increased, as indicated by the arrow.


![](https://assets.underline.io/uploads/markdown_image/1/image/920cf7b2d1c34d1c6fbb082d4a8f6f88.jpg)

Fig. 2 Number of skyrmions nucleated in our devices after applying 1000 50 ns pulses with current density J. In an irradiated device the number of skyrmions is increased and the current density required for nucleation is lowered. Black lines are fits to the data with the error function. Top: MFM scans of the devices.

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