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AM dependency parsing is a method for neural semantic graph parsing that exploits the principle of compositionality. While AM dependency parsers have been shown to be fast and accurate across several graphbanks, they require explicit annotations of the compositional tree structures for training. In the past, these were obtained using complex graphbank-specific heuristics written by experts. Here we show how they can instead be trained directly on the graphs with a neural latent-variable model, drastically reducing the amount and complexity of manual heuristics. We demonstrate that our model picks up on several linguistic phenomena on its own and achieves comparable accuracy to supervised training, greatly facilitating the use of AM dependency parsing for new sembanks.

IJCNLP-AACL 2021

Learning compositional structures for semantic graph parsing

am dependency parsing

semantic graphs

latent variables

semantic parsing

compositionality

**Welcome to ACL-IJCNLP 2021!**

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The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP).

workshop paper

We study the task of long-form opinion text generation, which faces at least two distinct challenges. First, existing neural generation models fall short of coherence, thus requiring efficient content planning. Second, diverse types of information are needed to guide the generator to cover both subjective and objective content. To this end, we propose DYPLOC, a generation framework that conducts dynamic planning of content while generating the output based on a novel design of mixed language models. To enrich the generation with diverse content, we further propose to use large pre-trained models to predict relevant concepts and to generate claims. We experiment with two challenging tasks on newly collected datasets: (1) argument generation with Reddit ChangeMyView, and (2) writing articles using New York Times' Opinion section. Automatic evaluation shows that our model significantly outperforms competitive comparisons. Human judges further confirm that our generations are more coherent with richer content.

DYPLOC: Dynamic Planning of Content Using Mixed Language Models for Text Generation

We investigate the less-explored task of generating open-ended questions that are typically answered by multiple sentences.
We first define a new question type ontology which differentiates the nuanced nature of questions better than widely used question words. A new dataset with 4,959 questions is labeled based on the new ontology. 
We then propose a novel question type-aware question generation framework, augmented by a semantic graph representation, to jointly predict question focuses and produce the question. 
Based on this framework, we further use both exemplars and automatically generated templates to improve controllability and diversity. 
Experiments on two newly collected large-scale datasets show that our model improves question quality over competitive comparisons based on automatic metrics. Human judges also rate our model outputs highly in answerability, coverage of scope, and overall quality. Finally, our model variants with templates can produce questions with enhanced controllability and diversity.

Controllable Open-ended Question Generation with A New Question Type Ontology

We present BERTGen, a novel, generative, decoder-only model which extends BERT by fusing multimodal and multilingual pre-trained models VL-BERT and M-BERT, respectively. BERTGen is auto-regressively trained for language generation tasks, namely image captioning, machine translation and multimodal machine translation, under a multi-task setting. With a comprehensive set of evaluations, we show that BERTGen outperforms many strong baselines across the tasks explored. We also show BERTGen's ability for zero-shot language generation, where it exhibits competitive performance to supervised counterparts. Finally, we conduct ablation studies which demonstrate that BERTGen substantially benefits from multi-tasking and effectively transfers relevant inductive biases from the pre-trained models.

BERTGen: Multi-task Generation through BERT

Neural Machine Translation (NMT) models achieve state-of-the-art performance on many translation benchmarks. As an active research field in NMT, knowledge distillation is widely applied to enhance the model’s performance by transferring teacher model’s knowledge on each training sample. However, previous work rarely discusses the different impacts and connections among these samples, which serve as the medium for transferring teacher knowledge. In this paper, we design a novel protocol that can effectively analyze the different impacts of samples by comparing various samples’ partitions. Based on above protocol, we conduct extensive experiments and find that the teacher’s knowledge is not the more, the better. Knowledge over specific samples may even hurt the whole performance of knowledge distillation. Finally, to address these issues, we propose two simple yet effective strategies, i.e., batch-level and global-level selections, to pick suitable samples for distillation. We evaluate our approaches on two large-scale machine translation tasks, WMT’14 English-German and WMT’19 Chinese-English. Experimental results show that our approaches yield up to +1.28 and +0.89 BLEU points improvements over the Transformer baseline, respectively.

Selective Knowledge Distillation for Neural Machine Translation

Previous studies have shown that initializing neural machine translation (NMT) models with the pre-trained language models (LM) can speed up the model training and boost the model performance.
In this work, we identify a critical side-effect of pre-training for NMT, which is due to the discrepancy between the training objectives of LM-based pre-training and NMT. Since the LM objective learns to reconstruct a few source tokens and copy most of them, the pre-training initialization would affect the copying behaviors of NMT models. We provide a quantitative analysis of copying behaviors by introducing a metric called copying ratio, which empirically shows that pre-training based NMT models have a larger copying ratio than the standard one. In response to this problem, we propose a simple and effective method named copying penalty to control the copying behaviors in decoding. Extensive experiments on both in-domain and out-of-domain benchmarks show that the copying penalty method consistently improves translation performance by controlling copying behaviors for pre-training based NMT models. Source code is freely available at https://github.com/SunbowLiu/CopyingPenalty.

On the Copying Behaviors of Pre-Training for Neural Machine Translation

Recent advancements in transformer-based models have greatly improved the ability of Question Answering (QA) systems to provide correct answers; in particular, answer sentence selection (AS2) models, core components of retrieval-based systems, have achieved impressive results. While generally effective, these models fail to provide a satisfying answer when all retrieved candidates are of poor quality, even if they contain correct information. In AS2, models are trained to select the best answer sentence among a set of candidates retrieved for a given question. In this work, we propose to generate answers from a set of AS2 top candidates. Rather than selecting the best candidate, we train a sequence to sequence transformer model to generate an answer from a candidate set. Our tests on three English AS2 datasets show improvement up to 32 absolute points in accuracy over the state of the art.

Answer Generation for Retrieval-based Question Answering Systems

The NLP community has seen substantial recent interest in grounding to facilitate interaction between language technologies and the world. However, as a community, we use the term broadly to reference any linking of text to data or non-textual modality. In contrast, Cognitive Science more formally defines “grounding” as the process of establishing what mutual information is required for successful communication between two interlocutors -- a definition which might implicitly capture the NLP usage but differs in intent and scope. 
We investigate the gap between these definitions and seek answers to the following questions: (1) What aspects of grounding are missing from NLP tasks? Here we present the dimensions of coordination, purviews and constraints. (2) How is the term “grounding'' used in the current research? We study the trends in datasets, domains, and tasks introduced in recent NLP conferences. And finally, (3) How to advance our current definition to align with Cognitive Science? We present ways to both create new tasks or repurpose the existing ones to make advancements towards a more complete sense of grounding.

Grounding 'Grounding' in NLP

In this work, we propose a globally normalized model for context-free grammar (CFG)-based semantic parsing. Instead of predicting a probability, our model predicts a real-valued score at each step and does not suffer from the label bias problem. Experiments show that our approach outperforms locally normalized models on small datasets, but it does not yield improvement on a large dataset.

A Globally Normalized Neural Model for Semantic Parsing

Despite its wide use, recent studies have revealed unexpected and undesirable properties of neural autoregressive sequence models trained with maximum likelihood, such as an unreasonably high affinity to short sequences after training and to infinitely long sequences at decoding time. We propose to study these phenomena by investigating how the modes, or local maxima, of a distribution are maintained throughout the full learning chain of the ground-truth, empirical, learned and decoding-induced distributions, via the newly proposed mode recovery cost. We design a tractable testbed where we build three types of ground-truth distributions: (1) an LSTM based structured distribution, (2) an unstructured distribution where probability of a sequence does not depend on its content, and (3) a product of these two which we call a semi-structured distribution. Our study reveals both expected and unexpected findings. First, starting with data collection, mode recovery cost strongly relies on the ground-truth distribution and is most costly with the semi-structured distribution. Second, after learning, mode recovery cost from the ground-truth distribution may increase or decrease compared to data collection, with the largest cost degradation occurring with the semi-structured ground-truth distribution. Finally, the ability of the decoding-induced distribution to recover modes from the learned distribution is highly impacted by the choices made earlier in the learning chain. We conclude that future research must consider the entire learning chain in order to fully understand the potentials and perils and to further improve neural autoregressive sequence models.

Mode recovery in neural autoregressive sequence modeling

The de-facto standard decoding method for semantic parsing in recent years has been to autoregressively decode the abstract syntax tree of the target program using a top-down depthfirst traversal. In this work, we propose an alternative approach: a Semi-autoregressive Bottom-up Parser (SmBoP) that constructs at decoding step t the top-K sub-trees of height ≤ t. Our parser enjoys several benefits compared to top-down autoregressive parsing. From an efficiency perspective, bottom-up parsing allows to decode all sub-trees of a certain height in parallel, leading to logarithmic runtime complexity rather than linear. From a modeling perspective, a bottom-up parser learns representations for meaningful semantic sub-programs at each step, rather than for semantically-vacuous partial trees. We apply SmBoP on Spider, a challenging zero-shot semantic parsing benchmark, and show that SmBoP leads to a 2.2x speed-up in decoding time and a ∼5x speed-up in training time, compared to a semantic parser that uses autoregressive decoding. SMBOP obtains 71.1 denotation accuracy on SPIDER, establishing a new state-of-the-art, and 69.5 exact match, comparable to the 69.6 exact match of the autoregressive RAT-SQL+GRAPPA.

Learning compositional structures for semantic graph parsing

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