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Adaptive Computation (AC) has been shown to be effective in improving the efficiency of Open-Domain Question Answering (ODQA) systems. However, the current AC approaches require tuning of all model parameters, and training state-of-the-art ODQA models requires significant computational resources that may not be available for most researchers. We propose Adaptive Passage Encoder, an AC method that can be applied to an existing ODQA model and can be trained efficiently on a single GPU. It keeps the parameters of the base ODQA model fixed, but it overrides the default layer-by-layer computation of the encoder with an AC policy that is trained to optimise the computational efficiency of the model. Our experimental results show that our method improves upon a state-of-the-art model on two datasets, and is also more accurate than previous AC methods due to the stronger base ODQA model. All source code and datasets are available at https://github.com/uclnlp/APE.

ACL-IJCNLP 2021

Training Adaptive Computation for Open-Domain Question Answering with Computational Constraints

adaptive computation

open-domain question answering

question answering

**Welcome to ACL-IJCNLP 2021!**

The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP). 

As in previous years, the program of the conference includes a poster session, tutorials, workshops and demonstrations in addition to the main conference.


We were able to keep the registration fees similar to those charged for the virtual ACL 2020. The one fee allows attendance at the main conference and any/all tutorials and workshops. These fees would be $125 Regular Early and $175 Regular Late; $50 Student Early and $75 Student Late. Early registration closes at midnight July 11, 2021 (Eastern Daylight Time).

**Reminder:** It is ACL’s policy that at least one author of each accepted paper (including ACL Finding papers) must register for the conference.

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The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP).

technical paper

A sequence-to-sequence learning with neural networks has empirically proven to be an effective framework for Chinese Spelling Correction (CSC), which takes a sentence with some spelling errors as input and outputs the corrected one. However, CSC models may fail to correct spelling errors covered by the confusion sets, and also will encounter unseen ones. We propose a method, which continually identifies the weak spots of a model to generate more valuable training instances, and apply a task-specific pre-training strategy to enhance the model. The generated adversarial examples are gradually added to the training set. Experimental results show that such an adversarial training method combined with the pre-training strategy can improve both the generalization and robustness of multiple CSC models across three different datasets, achieving state-of-the-art performance for CSC task.

Exploration and Exploitation: Two Ways to Improve Chinese Spelling Correction Models

Unsupervised commonsense question answering is appealing since it does not rely on any labeled task data. Among existing work, a popular solution is to use pre-trained language models to score candidate choices directly conditioned on the question or context. However, such scores from language models can be easily affected by irrelevant factors, such as word frequencies, sentence structures, etc. These distracting factors may not only mislead the model to choose a wrong answer but also make it oversensitive to lexical perturbations in candidate answers.

In this paper, we present a novel SEmantic-based Question Answering method (SEQA) for unsupervised commonsense question answering. Instead of directly scoring each answer choice, our method first generates a set of plausible answers with generative models (e.g., GPT-2), and then uses these plausible answers to select the correct choice by considering the semantic similarity between each plausible answer and each choice. We devise a simple, yet sound formalism for this idea and verify its effectiveness and robustness with extensive experiments. We evaluate the proposed method on four benchmark datasets, and our method achieves the best results in unsupervised settings. Moreover, when attacked by TextFooler with synonym replacement, SEQA demonstrates much less performance drops than baselines, thereby indicating stronger robustness.

A Semantic-based Method for Unsupervised Commonsense Question Answering

CommonsenseQA (CQA) (Talmor et al., 2019) dataset was recently released to advance the research on common-sense question answering (QA) task. Whereas the prior work has mostly focused on proposing QA models for this dataset, our aim is to retrieve as well as generate explanation for a given (question, correct answer choice, incorrect answer choices) tuple from this dataset. Our explanation definition is based on certain desiderata, and translates an explanation into a set of positive and negative common-sense properties (aka facts) which not only explain the correct answer choice but also refute the incorrect ones. We human-annotate a first-of-its-kind dataset (called ECQA) of positive and negative properties, as well as free-flow explanations, for $11K$ QA pairs taken from the CQA dataset. We propose a latent representation based property retrieval model as well as a GPT-2 based property generation model with a novel two step fine-tuning procedure. We also propose a free-flow explanation generation model. Extensive experiments show that our retrieval model beats BM25 baseline by a relative gain of $100\%$ in $F_1$ score, property generation model achieves a respectable $F_1$ score of $36.4$, and free-flow generation model achieves a similarity score of $61.9$, where last two scores are based on a human correlated semantic similarity metric.

Explanations for CommonsenseQA: New Dataset and Models

In several question answering benchmarks, pretrained models have reached human parity through fine-tuning on an order of 100,000 annotated questions and answers.
We explore the more realistic few-shot setting, where only a few hundred training examples are available, and observe that standard models perform poorly, highlighting the discrepancy between current pretraining objectives and question answering. 
We propose a new pretraining scheme tailored for question answering: recurring span selection.
Given a passage with multiple sets of recurring spans, we mask in each set all recurring spans but one, and ask the model to select the correct span in the passage for each masked span.
Masked spans are replaced with a special token, viewed as a question representation, that is later used during fine-tuning to select the answer span.
The resulting model obtains surprisingly good results on multiple benchmarks (e.g., 72.7 F1 on SQuAD with only 128 training examples), while maintaining competitive performance in the high-resource setting.

Few-Shot Question Answering by Pretraining Span Selection

To date, most of recent work under the retrieval-reader framework for open-domain QA focuses on either extractive or generative reader exclusively. In this paper, we study a hybrid approach for leveraging the strengths of both models. We apply novel techniques to enhance both extractive and generative readers built upon recent pretrained neural language models, and find that proper training methods can provide large improvement over previous state-of-the-art models. We demonstrate that a simple hybrid approach by combining answers from both readers can efficiently take advantages of extractive and generative answer inference strategies and outperforms single models as well as homogeneous ensembles. Our approach outperforms previous state-of-the-art models by 3.3 and 2.7 points in exact match on NaturalQuestions and TriviaQA respectively.

UnitedQA: A Hybrid Approach for Open Domain Question Answering

Neural models have shown impressive performance gains in answering queries from natural language text. 
However, existing works are unable to support database queries, such as "List/Count all female athletes who were born in 20th century", which require reasoning over sets of relevant facts with operations such as join, filtering and aggregation. We show that while state-of-the-art transformer models perform very well for small databases, they exhibit limitations in processing noisy data, numerical operations, and queries that aggregate facts.
We propose a modular architecture to answer these database-style queries over multiple spans from text and aggregating these at scale. We evaluate the architecture using WikiNLDB, a novel dataset for exploring such queries. Our architecture scales to databases containing thousands of facts whereas contemporary models are limited by how many facts can be encoded.
In direct comparison on small databases, our approach increases overall answer accuracy from 85% to 90%. On larger databases, our approach retains its accuracy whereas transformer baselines could not encode the context.

Database reasoning over text

To build a high-quality open-domain chatbot, we introduce the effective training process of PLATO-2 via curriculum learning. There are two stages involved in the learning process. In the first stage, a coarse-grained generation model is trained to learn response generation under the simplified framework of one-to-one mapping. In the second stage, a fine-grained generative model augmented with latent variables and an evaluation model are further trained to generate diverse responses and to select the best response, respectively. PLATO-2 was trained on both Chinese and English data, whose effectiveness and superiority are verified through comprehensive evaluations, achieving new state-of-the-art results.

{PLATO-2}: Towards Building an Open-Domain Chatbot via Curriculum Learning

Existing pre-trained models for knowledge-graph-to-text (KG-to-text) generation simply fine-tune text-to-text pre-trained models such as BART or T5 on KG-to-text datasets, which largely ignore the graph structure during encoding and lack elaborate pre-training tasks to explicitly model graph-text alignments. To tackle these problems, we propose a graph-text joint representation learning model called JointGT. During encoding, we devise a structure-aware semantic aggregation module which is plugged into each Transformer layer to preserve the graph structure. Furthermore, we propose three new pre-training tasks to explicitly enhance the graph-text alignment including respective text / graph reconstruction, and graph-text alignment in the embedding space via Optimal Transport. Experiments show that JointGT obtains new state-of-the-art performance on various KG-to-text datasets.

JointGT: Graph-Text Joint Representation Learning for Text Generation from Knowledge Graphs

In end-to-end speech translation, acoustic representations learned by the encoder are usually fixed and static, from the perspective of the decoder, which is not desirable for dealing with the cross-modal and cross-lingual challenge in speech translation. In this paper, we show the benefits of varying
acoustic states according to decoder hidden states and propose an adaptive speech-to-text translation model that is able to dynamically adapt acoustic states in the decoder. We concatenate the acoustic state and target word embedding sequence and feed the concatenated sequence into subsequent blocks in the decoder. In order to model the deep interaction between acoustic states and target hidden states, a speech-text mixed attention sublayer is introduced to replace the conventional cross-attention network. Experiment results on two widely-used datasets show that the proposed method significantly outperforms state of-the-art neural speech translation models.

AdaST: Dynamically Adapting Encoder States in the Decoder for End-to-End Speech-to-Text Translation

Open Knowledge Graphs (OpenKG) refer to a set of (head noun phrase, relation phrase, tail noun phrase) triples such as (tesla, return to, new york) extracted from a corpus using OpenIE tools. While OpenKGs are easy to bootstrap for a domain, they are very sparse and far from being directly usable in an end task. Therefore, the task of predicting new facts, i.e., link prediction, becomes an important step while using these graphs in downstream tasks such as text comprehension, question answering, and web search query recommendation. Learning embeddings for OpenKGs is one approach for link prediction that has received some attention lately. However, on careful examination, we found that current OpenKG link prediction algorithms often predict noun phrases (NPs) with incompatible types for given noun and relation phrases. We address this problem in this work and propose OKGIT that improves OpenKG link prediction using novel type compatibility score and type regularization. With extensive experiments on multiple datasets, we show that the proposed method achieves state-of-the-art performance while producing type compatible NPs in the link prediction task.

Training Adaptive Computation for Open-Domain Question Answering with Computational Constraints

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