United States

In recent years, several Speech Language Models (SLMs) that represent speech and written text jointly have been presented. The question then emerges about how model-internal mechanisms are similar and different when operating in the two modalities. We focus on how these systems encode, store, and retrieve factual knowledge, which has previously been investigated for text-only models. To investigate mechanisms behind the storage and recall of factual association in SLMs, we leverage Causal Mediation Analysis, a technique previously applied to text-based models.
Initial results using SpiritLM, a multimodal model integrating discrete speech tokens reveal discrepancies between text-to-text and speech-to-text results, suggesting that the emergent mechanisms for factual recall are only partially carried over from the text to the speech modality. These results advance our understanding of how internal mechanisms encode factual associations in SLMs while contributing insights for improving speech-enabled AI systems.

ACL 2026

Do Factual Recall Mechanisms Carry over from Text to Speech in Multimodal Language Models?

speech tokens

speech language models

activation patching

mechanistic interpretability

causal mediation analysis

factual recall

multimodality

# Welcome everyone to ACL 2022!

The 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics is taking place May 22-27, 2022 as a hybrid event, in Dublin and online. We are happy to welcome all of you to this anniversary edition with an almost 50-50 in-person and virtual participation. 
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ACL 2022

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Creating effective dialogue systems for mental health support requires high-quality multi-turn counseling dialogue data, yet collecting real counselor-client conversations presents significant challenges, including privacy concerns, high costs, and limited scalability. We present \textbf{Interactive Agents}, a novel framework that simulates naturalistic counseling dialogues through controlled LLM-to-LLM interactions. The framework introduces two key innovations: (1) a personalized client agent that maintains consistent psychological characteristics throughout a session, and (2) a counselor agent that implements a theoretically grounded three-stage therapeutic model comprising the exploration, insight, and action phases. Through rigorous evaluation using both automatic metrics and professional-counselor assessments based on the Working Alliance Inventory, we demonstrate that our framework generates therapeutically valid dialogues that are comparable in quality to human-generated sessions. Models fine-tuned on our proposed synthetic dataset (SimPsyDial) achieve state-of-the-art performance in a standard pairwise chatbot-arena evaluation of LLM-based counselors. Our framework provides a scalable, privacy-preserving method for generating high-quality counseling dialogue data while maintaining professional therapeutic standards.

Interactive Agents: Simulating Counselor-Client Psychological Counseling via Role-Playing LLM-to-LLM Interactions

While zero-shot instructional prompts like "Let's think step-by-step'' have revolutionized Large Language Model performance, we lack systematic understanding of why: which specific words drive their effectiveness, and how do these patterns vary across tasks and models? We introduce the ZIP score (Zero-shot Importance of Perturbation), a metric that quantifies individual word importance through controlled, semantically meaningful perturbations. To enable rigorous evaluation, we also introduce the first ground-truth benchmark for prompt interpretability, a set of validation prompts with predetermined keywords where ZIP achieves 95.8% accuracy compared to 65.8% for LIME. Analyzing six flagship models across seven prompts and multiple task domains, we find that word importance is task-dependent ("step-by-step'' dominates mathematical reasoning; "think'' matters more for common-sense tasks), varies systematically across model families, and correlates inversely with model performance, suggesting prompts have greatest impact on tasks where models struggle. Our findings advance prompt science, providing both practical guidance for prompt engineering and theoretical understanding of how instructional language shapes model behavior.

ZIP: Quantifying Which Words Matter in Zero-Shot Instructional Prompts

Language-model (LM) surprisal is widely used as a proxy for contextual predictability and has been reported to correlate with metaphor novelty judgments. However, surprisal is tightly intertwined with lexical frequency. We explore this interaction on metaphor novelty ratings using two different word frequency measures. We analyse surprisal estimates from eight Pythia model sizes and 154 training checkpoints. Across settings, word frequency is a stronger predictor of metaphor novelty than surprisal. Across training stages, the surprisal--novelty association peaks at an early stage and then falls again, mirroring a similarly timed increase in the surprisal--frequency association. These results suggest that the often-reported optimal LM surprisal settings may incorrectly associate contextual predictability with metaphor novelty and processing difficulty, whereas lexical frequency may be the major underlying factor.

The Frequency Confound in Language-Model Surprisal and Metaphor Novelty

Text embedding models are designed for sentence-level applications like retrieval and semantic similarity, and are primarily evaluated on sentence-level benchmarks. Their behavior on isolated words is less understood. We show that simply prepending semantic prompts to words before embedding substantially improves word similarity correlations. Testing 7 text embedding models, including text-embedding-3-large (OpenAI), embed-english-v3.0 (Cohere), voyage-3 (Voyage AI), all-mpnet-base-v2, and Qwen3-Embedding-8B, on 3 standard benchmarks (SimLex-999, WordSim-353, MEN-3000), we find that prompts like "meaning: {word}" or "Represent the semantic concept: {word}" improve Spearman correlations by up to +0.28 on SimLex-999. Some models fail completely on bare words (ρ ≈ 0) but recover with prompts (+0.73 improvement). Our best results achieve ρ=0.692 on SimLex-999 with embed-english-v3.0 (Cohere), ρ=0.811 on WordSim-353, and ρ=0.855 on MEN-3000 with text-embedding-3-large (OpenAI). These results outperform classic static embeddings like Word2Vec (ρ=0.40) and even the best static method LexVec (ρ=0.48) on SimLex-999, establishing a new state-of-the-art for pure embedding methods. This zero-shot technique requires no training and works with any text embedding model.

One Word Is Not Enough: Simple Prompts Improve Word Embeddings

Temporal reasoning over historical events is vital for temporal NLP tasks such as event extraction, entity linking, question answering (QA), timeline summarization, event clustering, and natural language inference. However, benchmarks for evaluating large language models (LLMs) on temporal reasoning remain limited. Existing datasets are small, lack multilingual coverage, and focus on recent events.
To address this, we introduce HistoryBank, a multilingual database of 10M+ historical events sourced from Wikipedia timelines and infoboxes. Our database provides unprecedented coverage in both historical depth and linguistic breadth with 10 languages. We also present a comprehensive benchmark covering 6 temporal QA tasks across all languages, evaluating models like LLaMA-3-8B, Mistral-7B, Gemma-2-9B, Qwen3-8B, and GPT4o. GPT-4o consistently performs best; Gemma-2 leads among smaller models.
Our work offers a rich resource for advancing multilingual, temporally-aware language understanding of historical events. To support further research, we publicly release our code and datasets. Code available at https://github.com/mandalbiswadip/history-bank and data available at: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vHudioDdI3EeYPbhYjKa0gimxaXvpxB2.

HistoryBankQA: Multilingual Temporal Question Answering on Historical Events

We present EvalMORAAL, a transparent chain-of-thought (CoT) framework that uses two scoring methods (log-probabilities and direct ratings) plus a model-as-judge peer review to evaluate moral alignment in 20 large language models. We assess models on the World Values Survey (55 countries, 19 topics) and the PEW Global Attitudes Survey (39 countries, 8 topics). With EvalMORAAL, top models align closely with survey responses (Pearson's $r \approx 0.90$ on WVS). Yet we find a clear regional difference: Western regions average $r=0.82$ while non-Western regions average $r=0.61$ (a 0.21 absolute gap), indicating a persistent regional alignment gap. Our framework adds three parts: (1) two scoring methods for all models to enable fair comparison, (2) a structured CoT protocol with self-consistency checks, and (3) a model-as-judge peer review that flags 348 conflicts using a data-driven threshold. Peer agreement relates to WVS survey alignment ($r=0.74$, $p<.001$; PEW $r=0.39$, n.s.), supporting automated quality checks. These results show real progress toward culture-aware AI while highlighting open challenges for use across regions.

EvalMORAAL: Interpretable Chain-of-Thought and LLM-as-Judge Evaluation for Moral Alignment in Large Language Models

How to defend large language models (LLMs) from generating toxic content is an important research area. Yet, most research focused on various model training techniques to remediate LLMs by updating their weights. A typical related research area is safety alignment. This however is often costly and tedious and can expose the model to even more problems such as catastrophic forgetting if the trainings are not carefully handled by experienced NLP practitioners. We thus propose a simple yet effective and novel algorithm, namely \textbf{Tox}ic Subword \textbf{Prun}ing (ToxPrune) to prune the subword contained by the toxic words from BPE in trained LLMs. In contrast to the previous work that demonstrates pruning BPE tokens as harmful to the task of machine translation, we surprisingly found its usefulness in preventing toxic content from being generated on LLMs. Fortunately, our findings suggest that ToxPrune simultaneously improves the toxic language model NSFW-3B on the task of dialogue response generation obviously. We surprisingly found that ToxPrune can even obviously improve official Llama-3.1-6B in the metric of dialogue diversity. Extensive automatic results and human evaluation indicate that ToxPrune could be helpful for both remediating toxic LLMs and improving non-toxic LLMs on the task of dialogue response generation.

Toxic Subword Pruning for Dialogue Response Generation on Large Language Models

There are two shortages in the current Large Language Models (LLMs) era. The first is short of multilingual models, where most LLMs are English-centric and performance is limited on multilingual reasoning. The second is the place of external knowledge to be used, where most retrieved knowledge is prepended to the user queries (maybe sub-optimal). This paper presents a novel and simple yet effective method called \textbf{D}ictionary \textbf{I}nsertion \textbf{P}rompting (\textbf{DIP}). When providing a non-English prompt, DIP looks up a word dictionary and inserts words' English counterparts into the middle of the prompt for LLMs. It then enables better translation into English and better English model thinking steps which leads to obviously better results. We experiment with 10 to 200 languages from FLORES-200.\footnote{The number of languages varies on the datasets, and we experiment with 200 languages on GSM8K as in Appendix} Since there are no adequate datasets, we use the NLLB translator to create synthetic multilingual benchmarks from the existing 4 English reasoning benchmarks such as GSM8K and AQuA. The synthetic benchmarks are translated back into English for quality assurance with manual annotation. Interestingly, the place for injecting the dictionary plays an important factor in the performance gains, and we found that interleaving the dictionary with the original words gives a better performance compared to prepending/appending the dictionary, under the same dictionary constructed.

Dictionary Insertion Prompting for Multilingual Reasoning on Multilingual Large Language Models

We propose NTNU-SMIL's system for SemEval-2026 Task 3 Track B Subtask 1 Dimensional Stance Analysis (DimStance). Our approach models target-conditioned valence–arousal regression using sentence-pair encoding, dual regression heads, and a logistic-loss regression formulation. For English and Chinese, we further leverage same-language transfer from Track A and apply lightweight out-of-fold calibration with multi-seed ensembling to reduce cross-lingual scale mismatch. Post-hoc analysis shows that same-language transfer and logistic-loss regression are the main drivers of performance gains, while arousal variance collapse remains a challenge in low-resource settings such as Swahili.

NTNU-SMIL at SemEval-2026 Task 3: Logistic-Loss Regression with Same-Language Transfer for Valence--Arousal Stance Prediction in Dimensional Stance Analysis (DimStance)

Conspiracy narratives on social media often hide in subtle word cues and quiet reasoning patterns, making their detection a challenging task for natural language processing systems. SemEval-2026 Task 10 PsyCoMark introduces a benchmark for studying these phenomena, pairing binary conspiracy detection with the extraction of five key psycholinguistic markers: Actor, Action, Effect, Victim, and Evidence. In this paper, we examine how modern transformer-based models can grasp both the conspiratorial intent and the deeper reasoning structures behind such narratives, using rehydrated Reddit comments annotated by experts in psychology and linguistics. We test five models across these subtasks, emphasizing the gap that exists between classification and deeper discourse-level interpretation. Our best system reaches 0.80 weighted F1 on conspiracy detection and 0.16 macro F1 on marker extraction, with per-marker F1 ranging from 0.36 (Actor) to 0.00 (Victim). This work also contributes to the growing call for explainable NLP methods that integrate psycholinguistic insights to better illuminate misinformation and conspiratorial thinking online.

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