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Detecting deceptive behavior in LLMs is typically done post-hoc on outputs or by probing static activations. We instead treat deception as a dynamic process, a trajectory through the model&#39;s hidden-state space during inference. We capture layerwise activations at sparse &quot;decision points&quot; where the model is uncertain between competing tokens, forming activation trajectories for matched truthful vs. deceptive responses across strategic deception, sycophancy, instructed deception, and confabulation. Across GPT-2 and Llama variants, deceptive generation is associated with changes in trajectory geometry, but increases in path length are model and deception-type-dependent. Sycophancy shows the clearest signal, whereas instructed deception yields near-null signatures. With just 7 geometric features, a lightweight classifier achieves performance comparable to PCA-reduced probing at matched dimensionality for binary sycophancy detection and shows preliminary utility for 4-way deception-type classification. These findings indicate that trajectory-based monitoring can provide process-level signals associated with deceptive generation during inference, complementing methods that focus on endpoint activation states.

ACL 2026

Trajectory Signatures of Deception in Large Language Models

### Welcome to ACL 2023, the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics! 
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ACL 2023

The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is the premier international scientific and professional society for people working on computational problems involving human language, a field often referred to as either computational linguistics or natural language processing.

Detecting deceptive behavior in LLMs is typically done post-hoc on outputs or by probing static activations. We instead treat deception as a dynamic process, a trajectory through the model's hidden-state space during inference. We capture layerwise activations at sparse "decision points" where the model is uncertain between competing tokens, forming activation trajectories for matched truthful vs. deceptive responses across strategic deception, sycophancy, instructed deception, and confabulation. Across GPT-2 and Llama variants, deceptive generation is associated with changes in trajectory geometry, but increases in path length are model and deception-type-dependent. Sycophancy shows the clearest signal, whereas instructed deception yields near-null signatures. With just 7 geometric features, a lightweight classifier achieves performance comparable to PCA-reduced probing at matched dimensionality for binary sycophancy detection and shows preliminary utility for 4-way deception-type classification. These findings indicate that trajectory-based monitoring can provide process-level signals associated with deceptive generation during inference, complementing methods that focus on endpoint activation states.

technical paper

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Large Language Models based Table Question Answering (LLMs-based TableQA) models excel in NLP field, however, they occasionally exhibit an unfaithful behavior where correct answers are derived through erroneous reasoning paths. In this condition, we propose TrustTable, a neuro-symbolic framework designed to ensure reasoning faithfulness by auditing the reasoning processes of LLMs. Unlike monolithic LLM-based auditors, TrustTable decouples the auditing operation into two orthogonal dimensions. It enforces factual grounding by executing neurally generated Pandas code against the table, and ensures logical soundness by verifying reasoning chains through a LLM-synthesized formal solver. By integrating these symbolic checks, TrustTable enables a Label-Free Audit Loop that systematically identifies and rectifies reasoning flaws without human supervision. In addition, we present the TrustTable-Bench, a diagnostic dataset containing diverse error categories that range from calculation discrepancies to schema misalignments. This benchmark allows for a rigorous quantification of reasoning limitations. Experiments demonstrate that our symbolic audit detects reasoning flaws more accurately than advanced baselines. More broadly, the TrustTable outperforms LLM judges in both majority voting with logical weighting and rejection sampling with process supervision.

TrustTable: A Neuro-Symbolic Auditing Framework for Faithful Table QA

3D Visual Grounding (3DVG) locates objects in 3D scenes based on natural language descriptions. However, existing methods are primarily confined to small-scale indoor data or rely on heavy supervision, failing to generalize to the complexity of large-scale urban environments. To address this limitation, we present CityVG, the first city-scale zero-shot 3D visual grounding framework capable of localizing urban objects without manual annotations. Our approach adopts a retrieval-and-reasoning paradigm comprising two key components. Specifically, we propose a contrastive fine-tuning strategy to align textual queries with urban scene graphs. By leveraging an LLM-driven graph clustering mechanism, we automatically construct high-quality positive and negative training pairs and fine-tune the text encoder via contrastive learning, resulting in a scene-adaptive text encoder that enables efficient alignment without grounding supervision. Complementing this, we introduce a multi-trajectory reward-based Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning strategy for inference. This mechanism iteratively evaluates candidate objects by aggregating reward scores across diverse reasoning trajectories, selecting the target that is most consistent with both appearance and spatial constraints. Extensive experiments on city-scale 3D grounding benchmarks demonstrate that CityVG achieves strong zero-shot localization performance and generalizes effectively to unseen urban environments.

CityVG: Contrastive Fine-Tuning and Reward-Based Chain-of-Thought Reasoning for Zero-Shot City-Scale 3D Visual Grounding

Extracting structured procedural knowledge from unstructured business documents is a critical yet unresolved bottleneck in process automation. While prior work has focused on extracting linear action flows from instructional texts (e.g., recipes), it has insufficiently addressed the complex logical structures—such as conditional branching and parallel execution—that are pervasive in real-world regulatory and administrative documents. Furthermore, existing benchmarks are limited by simplistic schemas and shallow logical dependencies, restricting progress toward logic-aware large language models (LLMs). To bridge this ``Logic Gap'', we introduce $\textbf{BREX}$, a carefully curated benchmark comprising 409 real-world business documents and 2,855 expert-annotated rules. Unlike prior datasets centered on narrow service scenarios, BREX spans over 30 vertical domains, covering scientific, industrial, administrative, and financial regulations.

We further propose $\textbf{ExIde}$, a structure-aware reasoning framework that investigates five distinct prompting strategies, ranging from implicit semantic alignment to executable grounding via pseudo-code generation, enabling explicit modeling of rule dependencies and providing an out-of-the-box framework for different business customers without finetuning their own LLMs. We benchmark ExIde using 13 state-of-the-art LLMs. Our extensive evaluation reveals that: (1) Executable grounding serves as a superior inductive bias, significantly outperforming standard prompts in rule extraction; and (2) Reasoning-optimized models demonstrate a distinct advantage in tracing long-range dependencies and non-linear rule dependencies compared to standard instruction-tuned models.

Business as Rulesual: A Benchmark and Framework for Business Rule Flow Modeling with LLMs

Long-term memory is essential for conversational agents to maintain coherence, track persistent tasks, and provide personalized interactions across extended dialogues. However, existing approaches as Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) and graph-based memory mostly rely on pairwise relations, which can hardly capture high-order associations, i.e., joint dependencies among multiple elements, causing fragmented retrieval. To this end, we propose \textbf{HyperMem}, a hypergraph-based hierarchical memory architecture that explicitly models such associations using hyperedges. Particularly, HyperMem structures memory into three levels: \textit{topics}, \textit{episodes}, and \textit{facts}, and groups related episodes and their facts via hyperedges, unifying scattered content into coherent units. Leveraging this structure, we design a hybrid lexical-semantic index and a coarse-to-fine retrieval strategy, supporting accurate and efficient retrieval of high-order associations. Experiments on the LoCoMo benchmark show that HyperMem achieves state-of-the-art performance with 92.73% LLM-as-a-judge accuracy, demonstrating the effectiveness of HyperMem for long-term conversations.

HyperMem: Hypergraph Memory for Long-Term Conversations

In this paper, we find that the generated preceding tokens, which are not directly related to the answer, may still significantly push the large language model (LLM) towards the target answer. More crucially, the biased connotations of target answer in the preceding tokens can also transfer to other prompts. This finding suggests that the LLM may intentionally use the semantically unrelated tokens to help the generation of the target answer. Our finding offers a new perspective on understanding the long-range dependency phenomena in LLMs.

Challenging the Explanation Based on Preceding Tokens: Discovering Transferable Non-Literal Biasing

Explainable diagnosis requires that authoritative medical knowledge provide the rationales linking a patient’s clinical manifestations to the diagnostic conclusion. Although large language models (LLMs) hold great potential to facilitate explainable diagnosis, their effectiveness is often constrained by insufficient diagnostic expertise. To address this limitation, we propose Self-learned Explainable Knowledge Augmented Diagnosis (SEKAD), a unified LLM-based framework for faithful and explainable diagnosis. Our approach builds a high-quality diagnostic knowledge base through a record-driven explanation learning paradigm, as well as applies this knowledge via an explanation-based diagnostic process that ensures faithful inference. Experiments on the DiReCT and JAMA benchmarks show that SEKAD consistently outperforms strong baselines across the metrics. In particular, on the DiReCT benchmark, SEKAD improves the explanation completeness metric from 64.5% to 76.9% over the best existing methods, highlighting its effectiveness in enhancing diagnostic explainability and showing that our text mining approach produces knowledge that is both reliable in quality and large in quantity.

Towards Explainable Diagnosis: A Self-learned Explanatory Knowledge Base Approach

Empathetic speech dialogue requires not only understanding linguistic content but also perceiving rich paralinguistic information such as prosody, tone, and emotional intensity for affective understandings. Existing speech-to-speech large language models either rely on ASR transcription or use encoders to extract latent representations, often weakening affective information and contextual coherence in multi-turn dialogues. To address this, we propose \textbf{ES4R}, a framework for speech-based empathetic response generation. Our core innovation lies in explicitly modeling structured affective context before speech encoding, rather than relying on implicit learning by the encoder or explicit emotion supervision. Specifically, we introduce a dual-level attention mechanism to capture turn-level affective states and dialogue-level affective dynamics. The resulting affective representations are then integrated with textual semantics through speech-guided cross-modal attention to generate empathetic responses. For speech output, we employ energy-based strategy selection and style fusion to achieve empathetic speech synthesis. ES4R consistently outperforms strong baselines in both automatic and human evaluations and remains robust across different Large Language Model (LLM) backbones. Code: https://github.com/Bean0901/ES4R.

ES4R: Speech Encoding Based on Prepositive Affective Modeling for Empathetic Response Generation

Large language models (LLMs) are designed for discrete tokens, yet they operate in a continuous embedding space. Recent context compression methods exploit this property by encoding text into dense vectors for frozen LLM decoding. However, a key question remains unanswered: how does a frozen LLM interpret continuous vectors that encode complex semantics? We investigate this through controlled reconstruction experiments. Our analysis reveals a critical geometric property: compression encoders learn to produce vectors with L2 norms two orders of magnitude higher than standard embeddings. We show that this high-norm signal is causally necessary for the frozen LLM to decode compressed information. Based on this finding, we propose a landmark-based compression framework for long contexts. Our encoder uses bidirectional attention over landmark tokens. This design captures global dependencies and avoids semantic fragmentation from segment-based methods. Experiments on text reconstruction and four QA benchmarks validate our approach. At 4x and 16x compression ratios, our method outperforms prior soft compression baselines.

Frozen LLMs are Native Decoders for High-Norm Semantic Vectors

Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have significantly improved code-generation capabilities, particularly through retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) for private libraries. While RAG leverages API documentation to address the scarcity of private code corpora, its performance critically depends on the quality of retrieved examples. Existing approaches often overlook the intrinsic characteristics of these examples, particularly how factors such as complexity, readability, and correctness impact their effectiveness. In this study, we systematically investigate these three critical aspects—complexity, readability, and correctness—and find that optimal examples should exhibit moderate complexity, semantic correctness, and step-by-step execution patterns. Based on these findings, we propose ComboPrompt, a novel example enhancement method that strategically combines existing API examples to improve complexity, refines code structure for readability, and incorporates automated validation ensuring correctness. Extensive evaluations across five private library benchmarks and different LLMs demonstrate that ComboPrompt achieves up to 22% accuracy improvement over baseline approaches. Code is available at [Anonymous Github](https://github.com/FireAndWin/ComboPrompt_ExampleQualityMatters).

Example Quality Matters: Multi-Aspects Example Augmentation for Private Library Programming

Graph-based Retrieval-Augmented Generation (GraphRAG) advances flat document retrieval by structuring knowledge as relational graphs, enabling more coherent and effective reasoning. However, applying it to specific domains like legal reasoning faces critical challenges. (i) Legal corpora are heterogeneous, containing multi-granular knowledge from cases, articles and interpretations. A flat knowledge graph cannot adequately differentiate between factual details, applied rules, and abstract principles, limiting accurate retrieval. (ii) Reliable legal judgment demands transparent, evidence-based reasoning. Traditional RAG passes retrieved context directly to an LLM without verification, resulting in opaque, error-prone reasoning. To this end, we propose LegalGraphRAG, a framework designed for reliable legal reasoning. Our approach introduces two core components: a hierarchical legal graph that hierarchically organizes legal sources to enable retrieval at appropriate abstraction levels, and a multi-agent system for reliable legal reasoning, where a Researcher retrieves candidate evidence, an Auditor rigorously verifies its validity against source documents, and an Adjudicator synthesizes the set of verified evidence to render a final judgment. Extensive experiments show that LegalGraphRAG achieves the state-of-the-art performance, outperforming existing GraphRAG baselines in accurate and trustworthy legal analysis. Our code, datasets and implementation details are available at https://github.com/XMUDeepLIT/LegalGraphRAG.

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TrustTable: A Neuro-Symbolic Auditing Framework for Faithful Table QA

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