United States

Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a significant public health problem, particularly in rural regions with health disparities, where it complicates infection management and consequentially increases morbidity and mortality. Adverse effects of pharmacotherapy and growing antibiotic resistance create a need for alternative treatment options. We investigated the potential of phytochemicals, antioxidants, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and Osteopathic Manipulative Therapy (OMT) as additional therapy for MRSA infections. These treatments have been shown to enhance the body&#39;s defense mechanisms against infection.

Objectives: We sought to investigate the potential of alternative treatments for MRSA infections, including phytochemicals, antioxidants, AMPs, and OMT.

Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using Google Scholar and PubMed to identify studies on MRSA in Appalachia, antibiotic use, and alternative treatment approaches. Relevant data was extracted and synthesized to identify key trends and disparities.

Results: Phytochemicals possess antimicrobial properties that inhibit MRSA growth and biofilm formation, while antioxidants reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, enhancing immune response and tissue healing. AMPs target bacterial membranes by disrupting MRSA&#39;s defenses and minimize resistance development. The Multicenter Osteopathic Pneumonia Study (MOPSE) trial found that patients aged 50 and older who received standardized OMT protocol had reduced mortality, respiratory failure rates, length of hospital stay, and antibiotic use.

Conclusions: Alternative therapies such as phytochemicals, antioxidants, AMPs, and OMT show promise in treating MRSA by targeting MRSA&#39;s defense mechanisms while actively enhancing the body&#39;s immune response. Future research should include qualitative studies to investigate the specific factors contributing to MRSA&#39;s prevalence in Appalachia, focusing on the region’s social determinants of health (SDOH). Additionally, clinical trials should assess the efficacy of alternative therapies as adjunctive treatments for MRSA.

AMA Research Challenge 2025 

Potential of Adjunctive Treatment Approaches in Improving Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) Outcomes in the Appalachian Region

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AAAI 2026

We are pleased to announce the Fortieth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-26), which will be held in Singapore EXPO from January 20 to January 27, 2026.

Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a significant public health problem, particularly in rural regions with health disparities, where it complicates infection management and consequentially increases morbidity and mortality. Adverse effects of pharmacotherapy and growing antibiotic resistance create a need for alternative treatment options. We investigated the potential of phytochemicals, antioxidants, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and Osteopathic Manipulative Therapy (OMT) as additional therapy for MRSA infections. These treatments have been shown to enhance the body's defense mechanisms against infection.

Objectives: We sought to investigate the potential of alternative treatments for MRSA infections, including phytochemicals, antioxidants, AMPs, and OMT.

Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using Google Scholar and PubMed to identify studies on MRSA in Appalachia, antibiotic use, and alternative treatment approaches. Relevant data was extracted and synthesized to identify key trends and disparities.

Results: Phytochemicals possess antimicrobial properties that inhibit MRSA growth and biofilm formation, while antioxidants reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, enhancing immune response and tissue healing. AMPs target bacterial membranes by disrupting MRSA's defenses and minimize resistance development. The Multicenter Osteopathic Pneumonia Study (MOPSE) trial found that patients aged 50 and older who received standardized OMT protocol had reduced mortality, respiratory failure rates, length of hospital stay, and antibiotic use.

Conclusions: Alternative therapies such as phytochemicals, antioxidants, AMPs, and OMT show promise in treating MRSA by targeting MRSA's defense mechanisms while actively enhancing the body's immune response. Future research should include qualitative studies to investigate the specific factors contributing to MRSA's prevalence in Appalachia, focusing on the region’s social determinants of health (SDOH). Additionally, clinical trials should assess the efficacy of alternative therapies as adjunctive treatments for MRSA.

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Background
Wearable devices such as biosensors and smartwatches have demonstrated clinical utility in arrhythmia detection in adult populations, but their integration into pediatric congenital heart disease (CHD) care remains limited. Despite advances in CHD management, challenges persist in the timely identification of arrhythmias in children. The use of wearables in pediatrics is constrained by research gaps, adherence issues, and complex data interpretation. Traditional tools like Holter monitors and event recorders face limitations in detecting intermittent arrhythmias and ensuring compliance. These devices cannot leverage artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to enhance ECG interpretation. This study analysis evaluates the potential of AI-augmented wearable biosensors to detect arrhythmias and early signs of decompensation more accurately and promptly than conventional methods, aiming to optimize outcomes in this vulnerable population.

Methods
A comprehensive literature review was conducted using data from observational studies, randomized controlled trials, and pediatric cohorts. The primary outcome was the performance of wearable devices capable of ECG capture, photoplethysmography, or physiological pattern recognition integrated with AI or ML algorithms. Pediatric-focused studies were prioritized, though adult findings were considered when applicable to children. A secondary outcome assessed the incidence of postoperative arrhythmias in common CHDs and strategies for long-term rhythm surveillance.

Results
Commercial wearables, especially smartwatches, have shown promise in detecting atrial fibrillation (AF). In one study, smartwatch-detected AF achieved 96.2% sensitivity and 93.1% accuracy, with strong concordance with cardiologist interpretation. The Apple Heart Study (420,000 adults) reported that 0.5% received an irregular pulse notification; 34% of these were confirmed to have AF on follow-up ECG. Although Apple Watch ECG features are approved for users ≥22 years old, one pediatric-focused study found that 71% of new arrhythmias were detected using these devices, 29% of which were missed by traditional monitors. ML-enhanced AF detection further improved sensitivity to 100% and specificity to 96%. Tandon et al. demonstrated that AI can efficiently process complex datasets and detect early deviations from individual health baselines.

Conclusion
While limited, emerging data suggest AI-integrated wearables could transform arrhythmia detection in pediatric CHD. These technologies promise earlier identification, timely intervention, and better long-term outcomes. There is an urgent need for further research and funding to develop pediatric-specific, AI-driven wearable monitoring solutions.

Wearable Devices for Early Arrhythmia Detection: A Systematic Review ofLong-Term Clinical Outcomes

Abstract Title
Assessing the Burden of Agitation in Hospitalized Traumatic Brain Injury Patients with Comorbid Substance Use Disorders

Background
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of morbidity and prolonged hospitalization in the United States. While substance use disorders (SUD) frequently co-occur in this population, their role in shaping the incidence and severity of post-TBI agitation remains poorly understood. Prior research has seldom examined how premorbid SUD influences agitation-related outcomes or care needs. This study aims to fill this gap by characterizing the relationship between SUD, agitation, and clinical outcomes in hospitalized patients with acute TBI.

Methods
This single-center retrospective cohort study reviewed 650 consecutive TBI admissions at an academic Level I trauma center from March 2024 to March 2025. Patients hospitalized for at least three days were included (n=467). Agitation was defined by documented clinical observations, use of physical restraints, or administration of agitation-targeted medications. SUD was determined based on documented diagnoses within the preceding year, patient or collateral reports, toxicology results (excluding substances administered emergently), and referrals to addiction services. TBI severity was classified by the best Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score within 24 hours of admission. Patients were categorized into three groups: no agitation, agitation without SUD, and agitation with SUD. Primary endpoints included ICU and hospital length of stay, agitation duration, restraint utilization, and addiction-related consults.

Results
Among 467 patients meeting inclusion criteria, 52.2% demonstrated clinically significant agitation, exceeding previously reported estimates of 31.7%. SUD was identified in 40.7% of patients, most frequently involving alcohol (31.4%) and tobacco (12.2%), with 37.8% exhibiting polysubstance use. The mean ICU length of stay was significantly longer in patients with agitation compared to those without agitation (19.26 vs. 9.32 days; p<0.001). Although patients with both agitation and SUD experienced a longer mean duration of agitation (13.46 vs. 11.18 days; p=0.23) relative to those without SUD, this difference did not reach statistical significance. This interim analysis, representing 30% of planned enrollment, identified significant associations between agitation and increased ICU utilization, while differences in agitation duration by SUD status did not achieve significance.

Conclusion
These findings demonstrate a high prevalence of agitation and SUD among hospitalized TBI patients, emphasizing the need for systematic screening and targeted management strategies. Although premorbid SUD was linked to numerically longer agitation duration, this association was not statistically significant. Significant relationships were observed between agitation and greater ICU resource use and restraint application. Ongoing data collection will help determine whether integrated approaches addressing SUD and withdrawal can improve outcomes after TBI.


Assessing the Burden of Agitation in Hospitalized TBI Patients with Comorbid Substance Use Disorders

Sixteen of the world’s fifty known species of box jellyfish are associated
with Irukandji syndrome, which causes a multitude of delayed reactionary and
potentially life-threatening symptoms. The primary species that release the potent
fast acting Irukandji-causing venoms are the Carukia barnesi jellyfish, of the
Carybdea genus. These box jellyfish are native to Australian waters where most
of the Irukandji syndrome cases occur. However, cases of Irukandji-like
syndrome have been reported worldwide after envenomations by Carybdea
jellyfish. Herein we report a probable new case of Irukandji-like syndrome in the
US Florida Keys, a region where Carybdea jellyfish have not been recorded.
While it is unclear which exact jellyfish is the causal organism, the clustering
incidents in the Florida Keys suggest a possible new box jellyfish or a member of
the Carybdied genus are causing Irukandji-like syndrome in the area.

Probable Case of Irukandji-Like Syndrome in the United States Florida Keys

• Alpha-Gal Syndrome (AGS) is a delayed-onset IgE-mediated food allergy caused by an immune response to galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal), a carbohydrate found in most mammals (e.g., pork, beef, rabbit, lamb, venison) but absent in humans. AGS is linked to bites from the lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum) in the U.S., which triggers sensitivity to alpha-gal.
• Unlike typical food allergies, AGS reactions occur 2–6 hours after consuming red meat or 4-legged mammalian derived products. Symptoms range from hives, itching, and GI distress to severe anaphylaxis.
• Alpha-gal in some medications necessitates careful prescribing to prevent allergic reactions, underscoring the need for thorough assessment and increased provider awareness.
• The CDC identified 110,000+ suspected cases (2010–2022), though the true number may be higher due to underdiagnosis and there are many healthcare providers who may not be familiar with the emerging disease1 . This study examines atrial fibrillation management in an AGS patient, highlighting allergic sensitivity to dofetilide and alternative treatment strategies.

Challenges in Managing Atrial Fibrillation in a Patient with Alpha-Gal Syndrome: A Case of Allergic Sensitivity to Dofetilide


Background
Dual epidural catheters (DEC) were originally described in 1949 to alleviate labor pain (1). Although uncommon, the technique has been successfully used for complex surgical procedures including spine deformity surgery, esophagectomy, and abdominal perineal resections (2,3,4). DECs have not been shown to significantly increase adverse events and have been associated with a 50% reduction in the rate of major post-operative complications, including anastomotic leaks, pulmonary complications, atrial fibrillation, and sepsis (3). We present a patient who received DEC for a two-stage removal of a coccygeal tumor.
Case Presentation
A 62-year-old 60kg female with a history of sacral chondrosarcoma s/p multiple intralesional resections presented for a 2-stage surgical removal. The first procedure was an anterior discectomy of the lumbar sacral spine. The pain service placed a T8-T9 epidural and started an infusion of bupivacaine 0.075% with hydromorphone 2mcg/cc at 5cc/hr. Patient reported 0/10 post op pain. On POD 2, she underwent stage 2 (posterior approach) of her tumor resection, and the surgeon placed a Lumbar epidural. The lumbar epidural infusion started at the post-op at 3cc/hr of the same epidural solution while the thoracic epidural was continued at 3cc/hr. Notably, the first epidural was continued intraoperatively at a rate of 3cc/hr during the second stage. After her second procedure, the patient again reported 0-3/10 pain for the next 5 days with both epidurals in place. Hemodynamics remained stable throughout, and the patient quickly met postoperative milestones. Multimodal agents added to her pain regimen included acetaminophen 500 mg q6h IV, gabapentin 300mg BID, and methocarbamol 500mg q8h IV. For breakthrough pain, her regimen included epidural boluses of 3cc q3h, oxycodone 5mg q4h prn and hydromorphone 0.25mg q4h PRN. She seldom required any PRN medications. Both catheters were removed on POD 5 from the second surgery.

Discussion
Overall, our patient tolerated the procedure and successfully transitioned to oral multimodals. The DEC technique has been reported to decrease opioid requirements and dependence on mechanical ventilation, which is increasingly important for today’s aging and sicker population. It allows for limited opioid use and its side effects such as respiratory depression, delirium, and ileus. The use of neuraxial can promote early recovery of bowel function, shortened hospital length of stay, decreased risk of perioperative complications such as immunosuppression and opioid induced endocrinopathy (4). While the DEC approach is promising, risks must be balanced with the benefit of the patients. Kinking, knotting, or looping of the catheter can cause it to break off and be left within the patient as seen in rare cases (5). However, complications of DEC are the same as single epidural catheters, and include infection, hematoma, and abscesses (6).



Dual Epidural Catheters for effective pain management after sacral coccygeal tumor removal

Abstract Title: 
Double jeopardy: A case of anomalous RCA arising from left coronary sinus with inter-arterial course complicated by significant advanced atherosclerotic disease

Background:
Coronary artery anomalies are developmental variations with an estimated incidence of 1-5.6%. While often benign, certain anomalies can lead to significant ischemic events, arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death. The anomalous origin of a right coronary artery (RCA) from the left coronary sinus with an inter-arterial course between the aorta and pulmonary artery is a high-risk "malignant" variant. This case highlights the diagnostic and management complexities when this 
congenital anomaly is compounded by advanced acquired atherosclerotic disease

Case presentation:
A 64-year-old female with a history of hypertension, diabetes, and endstage renal disease on peritoneal dialysis presented with acute hypoxic respiratory failure, hypertensive emergency, and elevated troponins. Her hospital course was complicated by atrial fibrillation and a suspected subacute stroke. Initial electrocardiograms showed a left ventricular hypertrophy with strain 
pattern, later evolving to deep T-wave inversions. A left heart catheterization was performed for ongoing chest pain, revealing an 80% heavily calcified proximal left anterior descending artery lesion, which was treated with shockwave atherectomy and a drug-eluting stent. The RCA could not be engaged. A subsequent coronary computed tomography angiography (CTA) identified an anomalous RCA originating from the left coronary sinus. The vessel had a high-risk inter-arterial course between the aortic and pulmonary artery roots and demonstrated extensive, long-segment, 
calcified atherosclerotic plaque causing possible severe obstructive luminal narrowing. 

Discussion:
This case represents a "double jeopardy" scenario, where a high-risk congenital anomaly is superimposed with severe acquired coronary artery disease. The inter-arterial course of the RCA creates a risk for dynamic, exertional compression between the great vessels, while the fixed, calcified atherosclerotic plaque independently obstructs blood flow. This combination dramatically elevates the risk for myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death, as even minor dynamic 
compression can become hemodynamically critical in the presence of a pre-existing stenosis. 
Determining functional significance of such lesions becomes pivotal. While surgical revascularization with coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is the definitive treatment to address both the dynamic and fixed obstructions when significant, patient had symptomatically improved. For further risk stratification, outpatient Stress test and Ambulatory monitoring were pursued which were negative for inducible ischemia and ventricular arrhythmias. The decision was then made to pursue aggressive medical management. This case underscores the importance of advanced imaging like coronary CTA in diagnosing complex coronary anatomy and highlights the challenges in managing patients with combined congenital and advanced acquired cardiovascular pathologies. We anticipate newer technologies like CT FFR might prove beneficial in such cases as they may provide crucial functional context to anatomical abnormalities, enabling a more comprehensive diagnostic assessment.


Double Jeopardy: An anomalous RCA with interarterial course and significant CAD

Background: Hypoglycemia is a common complication in pregnant patients with Type 1 diabetes, often exacerbated by hormonal changes and intensive insulin therapy. While mifepristone has been associated with hypoglycemia due to anti-glucocorticoid effects, the role of misoprostol, a prostaglandin E1 analog used in medical abortions, remains unclear.

Case Presentation: We describe a 28-year-old woman with well-controlled Type 1 diabetes who experienced recurrent severe hypoglycemia following misoprostol administration for medical termination of pregnancy. She had no history of hypoglycemia unawareness or adrenal insufficiency. Glycemic instability persisted for several days post-administration and required significant insulin dose reductions.

Discussion: This case highlights a possible association between misoprostol and hypoglycemia in patients with Type 1 diabetes. Proposed mechanisms include prostaglandin-mediated alterations in glucose metabolism or impairment of counterregulatory hormonal responses. A review of the literature revealed limited data on this phenomenon, underscoring the need for further investigation and to develop guidelines for managing glycemic control in similar clinical scenarios.

Conclusion: Clinicians should be aware of the potential for misoprostol-induced hypoglycemia in individuals with Type 1 diabetes. Preemptive insulin adjustments and close glucose monitoring are advised during medical management of pregnancy in this population.

Misoprostol-Induced Severe Hypoglycemia in a Type 1 Diabetic: 
A Case Report and Literature Review

Abstract Title

Use of Hypercalcemia and Vitamin D Levels in the Diagnosis of Sarcoidosis

Background
Sarcoidosis is a granulomatous disorder that most often affects the respiratory system, but can involve tissues throughout the body. The disease may cause hypercalcemia (termed sarcoidosis associated hypercalcemia (SAHC)) as macrophages within the granulomas secrete 1α-hydroxylase resulting in conversion of 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)2D. Renal injury can be seen in sarcoidosis secondary to hypercalcemia or as a direct result of granuloma formation in the kidneys. 

Case Presentation
A 65 year old female with past medical history notable for CKD II, HTN, DMII, and asthma-COPD overlap syndrome presented to the emergency department for the second time in one month due to hypercalcemia. The patient noted mild generalized fatigue and non focal weakness. Her medications included metformin, semaglutide, and a multivitamin. Laboratory evaluation revealed Ca of 12.2, ionized Ca of 6.1, phosphorus of 7.7, PTH of 18.3, and Cr of 3.2 from a baseline of 1.0 (GFR = 56). PTHrP from her prior hospitalization earlier in month revealed 25(OH)D wnl, 1,25(OH)2D wnl, kappa/lambda ratio mildly elevated, SPEP wnl, UPEP wnl, and urine Ca wnl. Workup of humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy included CT chest, abdomen, and pelvis, and colonoscopy which were all non-revealing. On hospital day 10 a kidney biopsy was performed and eventually revealed non-necrotizing granulomas consistent with sarcoidosis. The patient was started on prednisone with slow normalization of calcium and creatine levels.

Discussion
The classic lab profile of SAHC of normal/low PTH, low 25(OH)D and high 1,25(OH)2D is actually not seen in most cases. Hypercalcemia itself is present in only 6% of patients with sarcoidosis. Elevated PTH is not consistent with SAHC and should prompt a search for a source of PTH secretion. Of patients with SAHC, one study found that 84% of patients had reduced 25(OH)D levels, with only 11% having correspondingly elevated 1,25(OH)2D levels. Potential confounders of vitamin D measurements include supplementation, dietary intake, and sun exposure. Of note, our patient previously discontinued vitamin D supplementation, but was still taking a multivitamin which contained vitamin D. Thus, in a patient with hypercalcemia and kidney injury but with an equivocal workup, low 25(OH)D can support a diagnosis of sarcoidosis, but elevated 1,25(OH)2D provides little diagnostic value. However, 25(OH)D has several confounders, and this case illustrates that it is neither completely sensitive nor specific, and biopsy is still necessary to establish a diagnosis.

Use of Hypercalcemia and Vitamin D Levels in the Diagnosis of Sarcoidosis

Introduction: Muir-Torre syndrome (MTS) is a rare phenotypic variant of Lynch syndrome with approximately 200 reported cases occurring in both sexes, having a male-to-female ratio of 3:2. It is characterized by both visceral malignancies (colorectal and endometrial tumors) and dermatological neoplasms (sebaceous adenoma, sebaceous adenocarcinoma, keratocanthomas and basal cell carcinoma with sebaceous differentiation). Sebaceous adenomas are the most common dermatological manifestations on the head and neck, particularly the periocular area. In MTS, 56% of skin lesions occur after diagnosing visceral malignancy, 6% co-occur, and 22% occur before a visceral malignancy diagnosis. MTS is most commonly associated with MSH2 mutations and rarely with MLH1 and MSH6, also found in Lynch Syndrome.
Case Description: This is the case of a 64-year-old female patient with a medical history of cecal adenocarcinoma. At the age of 60, she underwent a screening colonoscopy, which revealed a large polypoid carpeted mass. The mass was surgically removed through hemicolectomy, and the pathology reported 3.1cm intramucosal well-differentiated stage 0 adenocarcinoma. Due to a family history of endometrial carcinoma in her mother, breast cancer in her sister, and colon cancer in her cousin, subsequent genetic testing was recommended, revealing an MSH6 mutation, confirming the diagnosis of Lynch syndrome. The patient also underwent a prophylactic hysterectomy with B/L salpingo-oophorectomy. Four years later, the patient developed a lesion on her right lower eyelid, which was surgically excised and later identified as a sebaceous adenoma with MSH6 gene mutation, indicating Muir-Torre syndrome (MTS). Based on the Mayo MTS score & the MSH6 mutation, the diagnosis of MTS was supported. Later, the patient underwent a colonoscopy to rule out colon cancer, which revealed two small sessile polyps, each measuring 2 mm, in the mid-sigmoid colon.
Conclusion: This case emphasizes the importance of early identification of patients with Muir-Torre syndrome (MTS), as they are at a higher risk for developing multiple primary malignancies, including GI, gynecological, and dermatological tumors. MSH6 mutations are linked to the late onset of Lynch syndrome, which explains why the patient developed malignancy later in life. It highlights the crucial role of ophthalmologists, dermatologists, and gastroenterologists in regular cancer screening and surveillance for the timely detection and management of MTS.

Exploring Muir-Torre Syndrome: A rare case study of Eyelid Sebaceous Adenoma in a Lynch syndrome patient

Background
Anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) are known to cause hepatotoxicity, with significant concern for inducing cholestasis and vanishing bile duct syndrome (VBDS). The risk is increased when combined with other supplements, such as the X-39 patch, containing copper. VBDS is a rarely reported but serious complication of AAS use, characterized by cholestasis and histological evidence of intrahepatic bile duct loss. Diagnostic confirmation requires a liver biopsy, showing the loss of at least 50% portal tracts. 

Case Presentation
A 27-year-old male with a history of low testosterone levels, being treated with testosterone supplementation, presented to the emergency department with symptoms of pruritus and jaundice. The patient was also reportedly using the X-39 patch for general wellness support. On physical examination, the patient appeared icteric. Laboratory studies revealed elevated liver enzymes – aspartate transaminase (AST) 152 U/L, alanine transaminase (ALT) 227 U/L, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) 216 U/L, total bilirubin level of 32.6 mg/dL, elevated WBC (17.6×109/L), and platelet count (657×109/L). His initial copper level was markedly elevated at 3,248 μg/dL. USG, MRI, and MRCP of the abdomen were unremarkable. Liver biopsy was negative for malignancy but demonstrated cholestatic hepatitis with mild focal portal chronic inflammation with stage-1 fibrosis. The infectious and autoimmune workups were unremarkable. Cytomegalovirus PCR depicted low-level viremia. The hepatitis panel was negative. Anti-nuclear antibodies were negative, with a mildly elevated anti-smooth muscle antibody. Ceruloplasmin level was within normal limits, while alpha-1 antitrypsin was slightly elevated. The patient was managed with immediate cessation of testosterone supplementation, along with penicillamine to chelate copper. Supportive care for symptom relief was provided – colestipol, hydroxyzine, and gabapentin for pruritus, and ursodeoxycholic acid for prevention of gallstone formation. Following treatment, the patient's copper level decreased to 402 μg/dL. Serial liver function tests showed gradual improvement over weeks, with normalization of bilirubin and significant reductions in AST and ALT levels. 

Discussion: 
VBDS is often a diagnosis of exclusion in patients with elevated ALP levels (≥2 times the upper limit of normal) when other causes of cholestasis are ruled out. Our case is only the fourth documented instance linking AAS use to this condition, and the first case ever to report the association of VBDS to the X-39 wellness patch, alongside AAS. While most cases improve with time, severe VBDS can lead to acute liver failure and death. Clinicians should maintain a high index of suspicion for drug-induced liver injury, particularly in patients using testosterone and wellness supplements.

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Wearable Devices for Early Arrhythmia Detection: A Systematic Review ofLong-Term Clinical Outcomes

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